Kar Wah Leung

Bacterial endotoxin activates retinal pigment epithelial cells and induces their degeneration through IL-6 and IL-8 autocrine signaling.

Inflammation is a major contributing factor to many blinding disorders including uveitis, diabetic retinopathy, and age-related macular degeneration. Here we examined the response of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) to physiological levels of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to understand the role of this epithelium in inflammatory retinal conditions. Expression of a group of inflammatory mediators was identified by gene array analysis and confirmed by PCR and immunocytochemistry in primary human RPE cultures and ARPE19. The effects of LPS on the expression of these cytokines and RPE survival were examined by PCR, Luminex bead, and MTT assays. RPE cells express many cytokine receptors including IL-1R, -4R, -6R, -8RA, IFNAR1, IFNGR1/2 and secrete a range of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines including IL-4, -6, -8, -10, -17, IFN-gamma, MCP-1, and VEGF. LPS increases IL-13RA1 and IFNAR1, and decreases IL-7R receptor expression. It also increases RPE secretion of IL-4, -6, -8, -10, IFN-gamma and MCP-1, and is toxic to RPE cells at LC(50)=17.7 microg/ml. LPS toxicity is mediated by IL-6 and IL-8 through an autocrine feedback loop. Silencing IL-6R and IL-8RA gene expression by siRNA blocks death by their respective ligands or LPS. These findings imply that RPE cells are acutely sensitive to inflammatory stress and that over secretion of IL-6 and IL-8 by this epithelium during inflammatory stimulus may be an underlying factor in the progression of some retinal pathologies.

Expression of ZnT and ZIP zinc transporters in the human RPE and their regulation by neurotrophic factors.

PURPOSE Zinc is an essential cofactor for normal cell function. Altered expression and function of zinc transporters may contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders including macular degeneration. The expression and regulation of zinc transporters in the RPE and the toxicity of zinc to these cells were examined. METHODS Zinc transporters were identified in a human RPE cell line, ARPE19, using a 28K human array, and their expression was confirmed by PCR, immunocytochemistry, and Western blot analysis in primary human RPE cultures and ARPE19. Zinc toxicity to ARPE19 was determined using monotetrazolium, propidium iodide, and TUNEL assays, and Zn(2+) uptake was visualized with Zinquin ethyl ester. The effect of various growth factors on zinc transporter expression also was examined. RESULTS Transcripts for 20 of 23 zinc transporters are expressed in fetal human RPE, 16 of 23 in adult human RPE, and 21 of 23 in ARPE19. Zn transporter proteins were also detected in ARPE19. ZnT5 expression was not observed, whereas ZnT6, ZIP1, and ZIP13 were the most abundantly expressed in all RPE samples. The addition of low concentrations of Zn(2+) to cultures resulted in a dose-dependent increase in intracellular Zn(2+) content in ARPE19, and >30 nM Zn(2+) induced necrosis with an LC(50) of 117.4 nM. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, ciliary neurotrophic factor, glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and pigment epithelial-derived neurotrophic factor (PEDF) increased ZIP2 expression, GDNF and PEDF increased ZnT2 expression, and PEDF increased ZnT3 and ZnT8 expression. These neurotrophic factors also promoted Zn(2+) uptake in the RPE. CONCLUSIONS The array of zinc transporters expressed by the RPE may play a key role in zinc homeostasis in the retina and in ocular health and diseases.

Codon Preference Optimization Increases Heterologous PEDF Expression

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is widely known for its neurotrophic and antiangiogenic functions. Efficacy studies of PEDF in animal models are limited because of poor heterologous protein yields. Here, we redesigned the human PEDF gene to preferentially match codon frequencies of E coli without altering the amino acid sequence. Following de novo synthesis, codon optimized PEDF (coPEDF) and the wtPEDF genes were cloned into pET32a containing a 5′ thioredoxin sequence (Trx) and the recombinant Trx-coPEDF or Trx-wtPEDF fusion constructs expressed in native and two tRNA augmented E coli hosts - BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RIL and BL21-CodonPlus(DE3)-RP, carrying extra copies of tRNAarg,ile,leu and tRNAarg,pro genes , respectively. Trx-PEDF fusion proteins were isolated using Ni-NTA metal affinity chromatography and PEDF purified after cleavage with factor Xα. Protein purity and identity were confirmed by western blot, MALDI-TOF, and UV/CD spectral analyses. Expression of the synthetic gene was ∼3.4 fold greater (212.7 mg/g; 62.1 mg/g wet cells) and purified yields ∼4 fold greater (41.1 mg/g; 11.3 mg/g wet cell) than wtPEDF in the native host. A small increase in expression of both genes was observed in hosts supplemented with rare tRNA genes compared to the native host but expression of coPEDF was ∼3 fold greater than wtPEDF in both native and codon-bias-adjusted E coli strains. ΔGs at −3 to +50 of the Trx site of both fusion genes were −3.9 kcal/mol. Functionally, coPEDF was equally as effective as wtPEDF in reducing oxidative stress, promoting neurite outgrowth, and blocking endothelial tube formation. These findings suggest that while rare tRNA augmentation and mRNA folding energies can significantly contribute to increased protein expression, preferred codon usage, in this case, is advantageous to translational efficiency of biologically active PEDF in E coli. This strategy will undoubtedly fast forward studies to validate therapeutic utility of PEDF in vivo.

Protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol bind to glucocorticoid and oestrogen receptors in endothelial cells.

Background and purpose:  Ginsenosides are used widely for medicinal purposes, but the mechanisms of their action are still unclear, although there is some evidence that these effects are mediated by nuclear receptors. Here we examined whether two metabolites of ginsenoside, protopanaxadiol (g‐PPD) and protopanaxatriol (g‐PPT), could modulate endothelial cell functions through the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and oestrogen receptor (ER).

ZIP2 and ZIP4 Mediate Age-Related Zinc Fluxes Across the Retinal Pigment Epithelium

Decreases in systemic and cellular levels of zinc (Zn2+) during normal aging correlate with several age-related pathologies including age-related macular degeneration. Zn2+ homeostasis in tissues is not only dependent on dietary intake but also on optimal expression and function of its influx (ZIP) and efflux (ZnT) transporters. We recently showed that many of the Zn2+ transporters are expressed by the retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells. In this study, we present evidence that RPE cells contain less endogenous Zn2+ with increased aging and transport this ion vectorially with greater transport from the basal to apical direction. Expression of two Zn2+ influx transporters, ZIP2 and ZIP4, is reduced as a function of RPE age. Gene silencing of ZIP2 and ZIP4 in RPE cells from young donors or their overexpression in cells from older donors confirms that these two transporters are essential in controlling Zn2+ influx and sequestration in RPE cells. Both transporters are distributed on the basal surface of the RPE where they are likely to control Zn2+ homeostasis in the outer retina.