Kara E. Ranaghan

Investigations of enzyme-catalysed reactions with combined quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods

Combined quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM or QM-MM) methods are an excellent approach for modelling the mechanisms of enzyme-catalysed reactions. QM/MM methods allow detailed modelling of reactions in enzymes by coupling quantum chemical calculations on the active site with a simpler, empirical ‘molecular mechanics’ treatment of the rest of the protein. Possible reaction mechanisms can be compared and catalytic interactions analysed. QM/MM calculations can now be carried out for enzyme-catalysed reactions with quantum chemical methods of potentially very high accuracy. More approximate QM methods can allow extensive molecular simulations (e.g. molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo simulations). In this review, QM/MM techniques are outlined and some recent applications to enzyme-catalysed reactions are discussed.

Protein dynamics and enzyme catalysis: Insights from simulations

The role of protein dynamics in enzyme catalysis is one of the most active and controversial areas in enzymology today. Some researchers claim that protein dynamics are at the heart of enzyme catalytic efficiency, while others state that dynamics make no significant contribution to catalysis. What is the biochemist - or student - to make of the ferocious arguments in this area? Protein dynamics are complex and fascinating, as molecular dynamics simulations and experiments have shown. The essential question is: do these complex motions have functional significance? In particular, how do they affect or relate to chemical reactions within enzymes, and how are chemical and conformational changes coupled together? Biomolecular simulations can analyse enzyme reactions and dynamics in atomic detail, beyond that achievable in experiments: accurate atomistic modelling has an essential part to play in clarifying these issues. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Protein Dynamics: Experimental and Computational Approaches.

Hydrogen tunnelling in enzyme-catalysed H-transfer reactions : flavoprotein and quinoprotein systems

It is now widely accepted that enzyme-catalysed C–H bond breakage occurs by quantum mechanical tunnelling. This paradigm shift in the conceptual framework for these reactions away from semi-classical transition state theory (TST, i.e. including zero-point energy, but with no tunnelling correction) has been driven over the recent years by experimental studies of the temperature dependence of kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) for these reactions in a range of enzymes, including the tryptophan tryptophylquinone-dependent enzymes such as methylamine dehydrogenase and aromatic amine dehydrogenase, and the flavoenzymes such as morphinone reductase and pentaerythritol tetranitrate reductase, which produced observations that are also inconsistent with the simple Bell-correction model of tunnelling. However, these data—especially, the strong temperature dependence of reaction rates and the variable temperature dependence of KIEs—are consistent with other tunnelling models (termed full tunnelling models), in which protein and/or substrate fluctuations generate a configuration compatible with tunnelling. These models accommodate substrate/protein (environment) fluctuations required to attain a configuration with degenerate nuclear quantum states and, when necessary, motion required to increase the probability of tunnelling in these states. Furthermore, tunnelling mechanisms in enzymes are supported by atomistic computational studies performed within the framework of modern TST, which incorporates quantum nuclear effects.

Insights into enzyme catalysis from QM/MM modelling: transition state stabilization in chorismate mutase

Chorismate mutase provides an important test of theories of enzyme catalysis, and of modelling methods. The Claisen rearrangement of chorismate to prephenate in the enzyme has been modelled here by a combined quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) method. Several pathways have been calculated. The sensitivity of the results to details of model preparation and pathway calculation is tested, and the results are compared in detail to previous similar studies and experiments. The potential energy barrier for the enzyme reaction is estimated at 24.5—31.6 kcal mol−1 (AMl/CHARMM), and 2.7—11.9 kcal mol−1 with corrections (e.g. B3LYP/6-31 + G(d)). In agreement with previous studies, the present analysis of the calculated paths provides unequivocal evidence of significant transition state stabilization by the enzyme, indicating that this is central to catalysis by the enzyme. The active site is exquisitely complementary to the transition state, stabilizing it more than the substrate, so reducing the barrier to reaction. A number of similar pathways for reaction exist in the protein, as expected. Small structural differences give rise to differences in energetic contributions. Major electrostatic contributions to transition state stabilization come in all cases from Arg90, Arg7, one or two water molecules, and Glu78 (Glu78 destabilizes the transition state less than the substrate), while Arg63 contributes significantly in one model.

Analysis of chorismate mutase catalysis by QM/MM modelling of enzyme-catalysed and uncatalysed reactions

Chorismate mutase is at the centre of current controversy about fundamental features of biological catalysts. Some recent studies have proposed that catalysis in this enzyme does not involve transition state (TS) stabilization but instead is due largely to the formation of a reactive conformation of the substrate. To understand the origins of catalysis, it is necessary to compare equivalent reactions in different environments. The pericyclic conversion of chorismate to prephenate catalysed by chorismate mutase also occurs (much more slowly) in aqueous solution. In this study we analyse the origins of catalysis by comparison of multiple quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) reaction pathways at a reliable, well tested level of theory (B3LYP/6-31G(d)/CHARMM27) for the reaction (i) in Bacillus subtilis chorismate mutase (BsCM) and (ii) in aqueous solvent. The average calculated reaction (potential energy) barriers are 11.3 kcal mol(-1) in the enzyme and 17.4 kcal mol(-1) in water, both of which are in good agreement with experiment. Comparison of the two sets of reaction pathways shows that the reaction follows a slightly different reaction pathway in the enzyme than in it does in solution, because of a destabilization, or strain, of the substrate in the enzyme. The substrate strain energy within the enzyme remains constant throughout the reaction. There is no unique reactive conformation of the substrate common to both environments, and the transition state structures are also different in the enzyme and in water. Analysis of the barrier heights in each environment shows a clear correlation between TS stabilization and the barrier height. The average differential TS stabilization is 7.3 kcal mol(-1) in the enzyme. This is significantly higher than the small amount of TS stabilization in water (on average only 1.0 kcal mol(-1) relative to the substrate). The TS is stabilized mainly by electrostatic interactions with active site residues in the enzyme, with Arg90, Arg7 and Glu78 generally the most important. Conformational effects (e.g. strain of the substrate in the enzyme) do not contribute significantly to the lower barrier observed in the enzyme. The results show that catalysis is mainly due to better TS stabilization by the enzyme.

Analysis of polarization in QM/MM modelling of biologically relevant hydrogen bonds

Combined quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods are increasingly important for the study of chemical reactions and systems in condensed phases. Here, we have tested the accuracy of a density functional theory-based QM/MM implementation (B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p)/CHARMM27) on a set of biologically relevant interactions by comparison with full QM calculations. Intermolecular charge transfer due to hydrogen bond formation is studied to assess the severity of spurious polarization of QM atoms by MM point charges close to the QM/MM boundary. The changes in total electron density and natural bond orbital atomic charges due to hydrogen bond formation in selected complexes obtained at the QM/MM level are compared with full QM results. It is found that charge leakage from the QM atoms to MM atomic point charges close to the QM/MM boundary is not a serious problem, at least with limited basis sets. The results are encouraging in showing that important properties of key biomolecular interactions can be treated well at the QM/MM level employing good-quality levels of QM theory.

Large-scale density functional theory transition state searching in enzymes

Linear-scaling quantum mechanical density functional theory calculations have been applied to study the rearrangement of chorismate to prephenate in large-scale models of the Bacillus subtilis chorismate mutase enzyme. By treating up to 2000 atoms at a consistent quantum mechanical level of theory, we obtain an unbiased, almost parameter-free description of the transition state geometry and energetics. The activation energy barrier is calculated to be lowered by 10.5 kcal mol(-1) in the enzyme, compared with the equivalent reaction in water, which is in good agreement with experiment. Natural bond orbital analysis identifies a number of active site residues that are important for transition state stabilization in chorismate mutase. This benchmark study demonstrates that linear-scaling density functional theory techniques are capable of simulating entire enzymes at the ab initio quantum mechanical level of accuracy.

Computer simulations of quantum tunnelling in enzyme-catalysed hydrogen transfer reactions

Transfer of hydrogen as a proton, hydride or hydrogen atom is an important step in many enzymic reactions. Experiments show kinetic isotope effects (KIEs) for some enzyme-catalysed hydrogen transfer reactions that deviate significantly from the limits imposed by considering the differences in mass of the isotopes alone (i.e. the semiclassical limit). These KIEs can be explained if the transfer of the hydrogen species occurs via a quantum mechanical tunnelling mechanism. The unusual temperature dependence of some KIEs has led to suggestions that enzymes have evolved to promote tunnelling through dynamics — a highly controversial hypothesis. Molecular simulations have a vital role in resolving these questions, providing a level of detail of analysis not possible through experiments alone. Here, we review computational molecular modelling studies of quantum tunnelling in enzymes, in particular focusing on the enzymes soybean lipoxygenase-1 (SLO-1), dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), methylamine dehydrogenase (MADH) and aromatic amine dehydrogenase (AADH) to illustrate the current controversy regarding the importance of quantum effects in enzyme catalysis.

Immuno-informatics Driven Proteome-wide Investigation Revealed Novel Peptide-based Vaccine Targets Against Emerging Multiple Drug Resistant Providencia stuartii

The bacterium Providencia stuartii, is associated with urinary tract infections and is the most common cause of purple urine bag syndrome. The increasing multi-drug resistance pattern shown by the pathogen and lack of licensed vaccines make treatment of infections caused by P. stuartii challenging. As vaccinology data against the pathogen is scarce, an in silico proteome based Reverse Vaccinology (RV) protocol, in combination with subtractive proteomics is introduced in this work to screen potential vaccine candidates against P. stuartii. The analysis identified three potential vaccine candidates for designing broad-spectrum and strain-specific peptide vaccines: FimD4, FimD6, and FimD8. These proteins are essential for pathogen survival, localized in the outer membrane, virulent, and antigenic in nature. Immunoproteomic tools mapped surface exposed and non-allergenic 9mer B-cell derived T-cell antigenic epitopes for the proteins. The epitopes also show stable and rich interactions with the most predominant HLA allele (DRB1*0101) in the human population. Metabolic pathway annotation of the proteins indicated that fimbrial biogenesis outer membrane usher protein (FimD6) is the most suitable candidate for vaccine design, due to its involvement in several significant pathways. These pathways include: the bacterial secretion system, two-component system, β-lactam resistance, and cationic antimicrobial peptide pathways. The predicted epitopes may provide a basis for designing a peptide-based vaccine against P. stuartii.

Structural Basis of Catalysis in the Bacterial Monoterpene Synthases Linalool Synthase and 1,8-Cineole Synthase

Terpenoids form the largest and stereochemically most diverse class of natural products, and there is considerable interest in producing these by biocatalysis with whole cells or purified enzymes, and by metabolic engineering. The monoterpenes are an important class of terpenes and are industrially important as flavors and fragrances. We report here structures for the recently discovered Streptomyces clavuligerus monoterpene synthases linalool synthase (bLinS) and 1,8-cineole synthase (bCinS), and we show that these are active biocatalysts for monoterpene production using biocatalysis and metabolic engineering platforms. In metabolically engineered monoterpene-producing E. coli strains, use of bLinS leads to 300-fold higher linalool production compared with the corresponding plant monoterpene synthase. With bCinS, 1,8-cineole is produced with 96% purity compared to 67% from plant species. Structures of bLinS and bCinS, and their complexes with fluorinated substrate analogues, show that these bacterial monoterpene synthases are similar to previously characterized sesquiterpene synthases. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that these monoterpene synthases do not undergo large-scale conformational changes during the reaction cycle, making them attractive targets for structured-based protein engineering to expand the catalytic scope of these enzymes toward alternative monoterpene scaffolds. Comparison of the bLinS and bCinS structures indicates how their active sites steer reactive carbocation intermediates to the desired acyclic linalool (bLinS) or bicyclic 1,8-cineole (bCinS) products. The work reported here provides the analysis of structures for this important class of monoterpene synthase. This should now guide exploitation of the bacterial enzymes as gateway biocatalysts for the production of other monoterpenes and monoterpenoids.