Karen A. Kainer

Liana loads and their association with Bertholletia excelsa fruit and nut production, diameter growth and crown attributes

We investigated the association between lianas and Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut), a long-lived, emergent tree of significant ecological and economic importance in Amazonia. Our objectives were: (1) to determine the relationship between crown liana load and liana number, basal area, and origin in relation to the B. excelsa host; and (2) to determine the relationship between liana load and B. excelsa fruit and nut production, diameter growth, and crown form, position and area. One hundred and forty trees (≥ 50 cm dbh) were selected with representatives of 10 diameter classes and four liana load categories. To quantify fruit and nut production, fruit counts and nut fresh weights per tree were measured in 2002 and 2003, and annual diameter growth was quantified using dendrometer bands. Trees with lianas produced significantly fewer fruits and had reduced nut fresh weights than liana-free trees. Trees with the most extensive liana loads (> 75% crown coverage) were 10.2 times more likely to have crown forms categorized as less than half-crowns or few branches than trees with reduced liana loads. No statistically significant relationship was found between liana load and tree diameter growth. Results suggest that liana cutting might increase B. excelsa fecundity and commercial nut yields.

Experiments in Forest-Based Development in Western Amazonia

The state government of Acre, Brazil, has integrated ecological, cultural, social, and economic forest values into a comprehensive forest policy to manage Acres abundance of comparatively pristine forests, while couching specific goals and the processes for achieving them within a broader sustainable development framework. Inspired by the rubber tapper culture and social movement, policy implementation has been advanced with broad support from national and international allies. While these experiments in forest-based development serve as a hopeful alternative to the steady deforestation observed in Amazonia, many long-term ecological, economic, cultural, and political challenges remain for sustaining and adapting these policy initiatives.

Tapping women’s knowledge: Plant resource use in extractive reserves, acre, Brazil

Tapping into the vast pool of existing plant resource knowledge is the first step toward developing production systems that successfully balance ecological, economic, and cultural concerns in the newly formed extractive reserves in Acre, Brazil. Field research targeting extractive activities by women in the forest communities identified the most common species used by women, and documented specific information on the management, collection, and processing of these plants. The women demonstrate refined botanical knowledge and plant management skills, exploiting over 150 wild and domesticated species in their communities. They possess particular proficiency in processing plants, especially species used for food, spices, beverages, and medicines. Women also display a great desire to enter the market economy, and have begun to test potential market products on a small scale. As such they can play a key role in production, diversification, and development of economically valuable plant products, and ultimately in the success of the extractive reserves.ResumenUma análise do manancial de conhecimento existente sobre os recursos floristicos constitui o primeiropasso no desenvolvimento de sistemas deproduçáo que conciliem necessidades ecologicas, econômicas e culturais nas recém-criadas reservas ext rativistas no Acre, Brasil. Através de pesquisas de campo referentes as atividades extrativistas praticadas por mulheres em comunidades de mata, identificaram-se as espécies mais comumente usadas e documentaram-se informacôes especificas sobre o manejo, coleta e processamento destas plantas. As mulheres exibem refinado conhecimento botânico e habilidade no manejo das plantas, explorando mais de 150 espécies silvestres e domesticadas em suas comunidades. Elas sâo especialmente competentes no processamento das plantas, principalmente das espécies usadas como alimento, temperos, bebidas e remédios. Além disso, as mulheres demonstram forte desejo de participar da economia de mercado, tendo comecado a testar produt os potenciais em pequena escala. Desta maneira, elas poderâo desempenhar um papel na producâo, diversificação e desenvolvimento dos prod utos floristicos de importância econômica e, em tdtima instáncia, no sucesso das reservas ext rativistas.

BRAZIL NUT SEEDLING ESTABLISHMENT AND AUTECOLOGY IN EXTRACTIVE RESERVES OF ACRE, BRAZIL

In the western Amazonian state of Acre, Brazil, extractive reserve residents are examining strategies to intensify their extraction-based system without compromising biological conservation. One such strategy is to increase production from their major source of income, Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), by augmenting the species’ density within the reserves. We evaluated the success of Brazil nut seedling establishment at three types of planting sites on extractivist landholdings: forest gaps, shifting-cultivation plots, and pastures. Nursery-grown seedlings were planted according to a randomized complete block design at five extractivist landholdings with planting sites as the main treatment. Average photosynthetic photon-flux density was approximately four times higher in shifting-cultivation plots and pastures than in forest gaps. Soil pH and extractable Ca, K, Mg, and P were the highest in shifting-cultivation plots. Pasture sites had the most compact soils and an intermediate pH value; forest-gap soils were the most acidic. There were no differences in total soil N, total soil C, and percent organic matter across the three sites. After two years, mean seedling height and diameter in the shifting-cultivation plots were almost double those of seedlings established in pastures and forest gaps, while seedling survival at all three sites was comparable, at approximately 40%. Seedlings in shifting-cultivation plots and pastures had higher predawn water potential values, foliar nutrient levels, and root biomass than seedlings in forest gaps. Although light, nutrients, and water resources were available in pastures, enrichment plantings in this site proved to be the least compatible with the overall extractivist system because of high labor inputs necessary for establishment, particularly if grazing animals were part of the system. Although forest gaps were appropriate enrichment sites from a socio-economic perspective, light availability was low, and both belowground resources, nutrients and water, appeared to be very limiting so that gap seedlings demonstrated slow growth. Shifting-cultivation plots were the best sites for Brazil nut enrichment plantings in extractive reserves. Light, nutrients, and water resources proved to be readily available, seedlings performed the best, and overall compatibility with the extractivist system was good.

Resource Theft in Tropical Forest Communities: Implications for Non- timber Management, Livelihoods, and Conservation

Increased devolution of forest ownership and management rights to local control has the potential to promote both conservation and livelihood development in remote tropical regions. Such shifts in property rights, however, can generate conflicts, particularly when combined with rapidly increasing values of forest resources. We explored the phenomenon of Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) theft in communities in Western Amazonia. Through interviews with 189 Brazil nut collectors in 12 communities in Bolivia and Brazil and participation in the 2006 and 2007 harvests, we quantified relative income derived from Brazil nuts, reported nut thefts, and nut collection and management practices. We found a much greater incidence of reported Brazil nut thefts in Pando, Bolivia than in the adjacent state of Acre, Brazil. Our analyses suggest that three factors may have affected nut thefts in the forest: (1) contrasts in the timing and process of formally recognizing property rights, (2) different historic settlement patterns, and (3) varying degrees of economic dependence on Brazil nuts. Threat of theft influenced Brazil nut harvest regimes, with potentially long-term implications for forest-based livelihoods, and management and conservation of Brazil nut-rich forests in Western Amazonia.

Testing a silvicultural recommendation: Brazil nut responses 10 years after liana cutting

Summary 1. Lianas or woody vines can be detrimental to the trees that support them. Research on liana cutting for tropical timber management has demonstrated positive yet costly benefits, but liana cutting to enhance commercial outputs of nontimber forest products has not been examined. We implemented a controlled experiment to quantify the effects of cutting lianas on Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa Bonpl. fecundity. 2. We conducted our 10-year experiment in a Brazilian extractive reserve where local harvesters collect fruits from this Amazonian canopy-emergent species as part of their forest-based livelihood system. We cut 454 lianas with a total basal area of 241 m 2 from 78 of 138 host trees ≥50 cm diameter at breast height. 3. Treated trees were significantly better producers 3 ½ years after liana cutting, and these differences increased dramatically in subsequent years, with consistent proportionally higher production in treated versus untreated individuals. 4. The number of lianas rooted within 5 m of the host tree significantly explained production levels, suggesting both above- and below-ground liana–host tree competition. Once host crowns were liana-free, branch regrowth was highly visible, particularly in heavily infested trees, and crown reassessments suggested that liana cutting improved crown form. Additionally, liana cutting may induce some nonproducing trees to become producers and may circumvent mortality of trees heavily infested with lianas (> 75% crown covered). 5. Liana removal can be implemented easily when harvesting Brazil nut fruits. Only lianas associated with B. excelsa trees should be cut to conserve liana ecosystem functions. 6. Synthesis and applications. We quantified effects of liana cutting on Brazil nut host tree fecundity and provided estimates of increased commercial yields. Our long-term (10-year) study permits understanding of biological variation and informs related management decisions. Findings suggest that liana cutting reduces above- and below-ground competition with individual trees, ultimately allowing mature host crowns to recover such that 9–10 years after liana cutting, treated trees produced on average three times more fruits than untreated trees. Application of liana cutting to other tropical species would likely boost fruit and seed production, increase host tree fecundity and potentially enhance future recruitment.

Moist storage of Brazil nut seeds for improved germination and nursery management

Abstract Seed storage of species from the humid tropics is often problematic because of seed sensitivity to desiccation and low temperatures, conditions traditionally considered necessary for long-term seed storage. In this study, Brazil nut seeds from 10 families were stored for five-and-a-half months under moist conditions at warm ambient temperatures. A randomized complete block design was employed for analysis of seed moisture content and germination, with storage and family as the main treatment factors. Moist storage of Brazil nut seeds clearly improved germination and can greatly facilitate nursery management. Seeds that were stored and then had testas removed germinated more quickly (Day 14 versus Day 60), exhibited greater percentage germination (74.8 versus 53.5%), and a reduction in seed deterioration (25.2 versus 46.5%). Storage also improved germination rate, and no seeds germinated prematurely while in storage. Moist storage improved germination of some families more than others such that stored seeds exhibited more uniform germination across all families. The delayed and prolonged germination of nonstored seeds may be due to endogenous seed dormancy that appears to be favorable for increasing the effective storage period of Brazil nut. During storage, embryo maturation may have taken place and/or a chemical inhibitor may have been leached from the embryos, resulting in improved Brazil nut germination.

Pollen and seed flow patterns of Carapa guianensis Aublet. (Meliaceae) in two types of Amazonian forest

Various factors affect spatial genetic structure in plant populations, including adult density and primary and secondary seed dispersal mechanisms. We evaluated pollen and seed dispersal distances and spatial genetic structure of Carapa guianensis Aublet. (Meliaceae) in occasionally inundated and terra firme forest environments that differed in tree densities and secondary seed dispersal agents. We used parentage analysis to obtain contemporary gene flow estimates and assessed the spatial genetic structure of adults and juveniles. Despite the higher density of adults (diameter at breast height ≥ 25 cm) and spatial aggregation in occasionally inundated forest, the average pollen dispersal distance was similar in both types of forest (195 ± 106 m in terra firme and 175 ± 87 m in occasionally inundated plots). Higher seed flow rates (36.7% of juveniles were from outside the plot) and distances (155 ± 84 m) were found in terra firme compared to the occasionally inundated plot (25.4% and 114 ± 69 m). There was a weak spatial genetic structure in juveniles and in terra firme adults. These results indicate that inundation may not have had a significant role in seed dispersal in the occasionally inundated plot, probably because of the higher levels of seedling mortality.

Control of Carapa guianensis phenology and seed production at multiple scales: a five-year study exploring the influences of tree attributes, habitat heterogeneity and climate cues

During 5 y, we monitored reproductive activity and seed production of Carapa guianensis in two forest types to test the hypothesis that seed production is influenced by multiple factors across scales (regional climatic cues, local habitat heterogeneity and individual tree attributes). Variability in seed production was moderate at the population (CVp =1.25)andindividuallevel(xCVi =1.24).AmixedmodelwithaPoissonregressionrevealedthatseedproduction was explained by variables at all scales. Total seed production was significantly higher in occasionally inundated forests. Diameter at breast height, dbh 2 , crown cross-sectional area, liana load, density, dry-season rainfall and mean maximum temperature were also significant in explaining seed production variation. Seed production increased with dbh until 40-50 cm, then decreased. Liana load demonstrated a negative relationship with seed production, but only in terra firme forests. Climatic cues (rainfall and temperature parameters) were central to setting overall patterns in reproductive activity and seemed to best explain why years with high seed production were consistent across the two forest types (habitats) examined. Dry-season rainfall was positively correlated with seed production.

Market Integration and Livelihood Systems: A Comparative Case of Three Asháninka Villages in the Peruvian Amazon

ABSTRACT The strong trend in indigenous societies toward market integration often results in loss of traditional cultural elements and changes in livelihood systems. This comparative study of three Asháninka villages located at different distances to market had two objectives: (a) to describe and analyze the current livelihood system of the three villages in terms of their goals, activities, and resources; and (b) to analyze the livelihood system in relation to market integration at both village and household levels. Two variables were used to measure market integration: (a) quantification of the value of Western goods at the household level, and (b) area under cultivation per household designated to both household subsistence and external market. We found that although walking time to market was inversely proportional to market integration and directly proportional to traditional practices at the village level, two different trends of market integration were found at the household level: (a) basic market integration, clearly apparent in households at all three villages; and (b) high market integration, found solely in the two villages closest in time to market. The existence of market–integrated, less traditional households side by side with minimally integrated, traditional households appeared to be linked to differences in household goals and strategies and perhaps availability of male labor. Market integration increased workloads on productive activities oriented to the market for both genders, but only men marketed these products for sale.