Karen A. Longman

Women’s Leadership Development: A Study of Defining Moments

This article reports the findings of a grounded theory study of “defining moments” that were described as pivotal in the personal and professional journeys of women who had been identified as emerging leaders within Christian higher education. Analysis of transcripts from interviews with 16 participants in a Womens Leadership Development Institute revealed three patterns of response as these women identified what they perceived to be their “most defining moment:” (a) someone speaking potential, sometimes as succinctly as a single sentence, into their lives, leading to a reframing of self-perception; (b) encountering a person or situation that resulted in reframing the participants understanding of leadership in ways that allowed these women to begin perceiving themselves as leaders; and (c) experiencing a situation that led to feeling compelled to stand up for a conviction or strong belief. Relevant literature related to leadership development, the impact of gender on leadership, Christian higher education leadership, and defining moments is presented. A discussion of the implications for Christian higher education follows the summary of findings.

Gendered Realities and Women's Leadership Development: Participant Voices from Faith-Based Higher Education

Women who seek high-level administrative leadership positions in various sectors of higher education continue to meet a variety of barriers (Eagly & Carli, 2007). These challenges are especially evident among the 105-member Council for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU), an association of faith-based liberal arts institutions. Seeking to identify, equip, and encourage more women to enter high-level positions of leadership, in 1998 the CCCU launched a series of year-long leadership programs, each of which began with a five-day Womens Leadership Development Institute (WLDI). During four institutes held between 1998 and 2004, the WLDI involved 71 “emerging leaders” in a multifaceted leadership development program specifically intended for women. Survey responses from 53 of the 71 participants were used to assess which experiences in the one-year WLDI project had been most significant in encouraging and preparing participants for higher-level administrative leadership. Multiple regression analyses indicated that the experiences perceived as most beneficial by the participants were the shadowing/mentoring experience on another campus, the WLDI participation restriction to women, and the informal conversations and networking with other women. The shadowing/mentoring experience had the greatest influence on increasing the participants’ confidence in themselves as academic leaders and changing their thinking about their own leadership potential. Participation in a leadership program that was limited to women was frequently cited as a source of encouragement for these participants to remain in Christian higher education. More than half of the survey respondents moved into broader leadership responsibilities within one year of participating in the WLDI.

Moving Beyond the Stained Glass Ceiling: Preparing Women for Leadership in Faith-Based Higher Education

The Problem. While a variety of factors have historically limited access by women to top-level leadership positions across higher education, these factors become more complicated when juxtaposed with the theological commitments that influence the leadership journeys of women in these settings. The Solution. This article reviews the literature related to women in higher education leadership, with a particular focus on the state of women in leadership found in faith-based colleges and universities—as represented by the 110 member institutions of the Council for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU). It describes the results of in-depth research on the impact of a CCCU Women’s Leadership Development initiative, launched in 1998. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation data are discussed and implications outlined. The Stakeholders. The lessons emerging from this initiative and research can be helpful for postsecondary leaders, HRD and leadership development professionals, and all those who focus on developing women in higher education settings.

Women’s Leadership Development in Higher Education: Conclusion and Implications for HRD

The Problem. The intentional preparation of future leaders for higher education remains a critical need today in institutions across the globe. Many colleges and universities are now seeking to design programs that develop the leadership skills of faculty, staff, and administrators, and because of the shortage of women in leadership positions, special efforts need to focus on the development of women. Yet guidance and assistance are required to do so effectively and efficiently. The Solution. The purpose of this final article is to highlight a few of the particularly important findings across all articles in this Special Issue, offer some overall implications for leadership development and the HRD field, and provide tables of sample leadership programs for women in higher education at the national, state, and institutional levels. The Stakeholders. This article provides researchers and practitioners in various fields of study with implications toward more effectively developing, evaluating, researching, and implementing leadership programs for women in higher education.

Conceptualization of Calling: A Grounded Theory Exploration of CCCU Women Leaders

This grounded theory study provides a conceptualization of the role of calling in womens leadership development based on semistructured interviews with 16 female leaders in the Council for Christian Colleges & Universities. Centered in the participants knowing and using their unique talents and strengths, which were often viewed as being clues to Gods plan for their lives, the participants conceptualized calling along two dimensions: internal-external and specific-general. Internal-external refers to sources of validation from which women experienced confirmation for their giftedness. Specific-general refers to whether calling was viewed as pointing to a well-defined task or was a generalized way of being, incorporating a sense of purpose or direction. Coding of participant interviews into dominant themes revealed aspects of each dimension, with participants’ awareness of calling being enlarged or potentially constricted based on four contextual factors: theological influences, family realities, cultural expectations, and life circumstances. This article connects existing research about calling, leadership, and motivation, and provides a model that emerged from the current research that contributes to the literature about womens leadership development.

Gender Trends in Senior-Level Leadership: A 12-Year Analysis of the CCCU U.S. Member Institutions.

This article documents the continued gender disparities evident across U.S. higher education. While more women than men attend college and now obtain the majority of undergraduate, masters, and doctoral degrees, women continue to be underrepresented in senior-level institutional leadership roles. This phenomenon is particularly evident among the member institutions of the Council for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU). Given that the CCCUs 108 U.S. member campuses serve a collective student body that is more than 60% female, such gender imbalances are striking, especially noting the commitment of Christ-centered campuses to foster organizational climates that value diversity and promote the success and well-being of all students. Data over a 12-year period (1998–2010) have been collected to document trends in the gender composition of the senior-level leadership teams on these campuses. Over that period, the average number of individuals serving at vice presidential or higher levels across these institutions increased from 5.3 to 5.9. The percent of men grew 20% over the period, while the percent of women serving on those leadership teams grew 161%—from 8.4% to 17% of the total serving in these senior leadership positions. On average across these campuses, the mean of male senior leaders in 2010 was 4.9; the mean of women serving was just under 1.0 (.99). The background, results, and discussion/implications sections present trends and themes related to the composition of CCCU presidents’ leadership teams, with suggestions offered for changing the face of senior leadership in member institutions.

Leadership Development through Mentoring in Higher Education: A Collaborative Autoethnography of Leaders of Color

In this collaborative autoethnography, we explored how 14 academic and administrative leaders of color working in faith-based higher education have experienced personal and professional mentoring, and how mentoring experiences have influenced their leadership development. All participants identified a wide array of developmental relationships that had contributed to their leadership development, although not all of the relationships were labeled as mentoring. Whereas female participants (11 in total) relied on these relationships primarily for psychosocial support, three male participants had more actively sought out mentoring relationships to develop career skills and expand their professional network. Particularly, for the female participants, mentoring took place mostly outside their professional settings. We argue that personal and institutional factors contributed to the participants’ limited access to professional mentoring within their higher education contexts. This collaborative autoethnography process, which lasted at least six months for most participants, unexpectedly provided professional mentoring opportunities for these leaders of color.

Contributors to Women's Leadership Development in Christian Higher Education: A Model and Emerging Theory.

A theory of womens leadership development within the context of Christian higher education is proposed, based on qualitative research involving 16 participants. Motivators to advance into leadership roles were: (a) a sense of relational responsibility; (b) awareness of calling and giftedness for leadership, and (c) a mentoring relationship or role model. These emerging leaders typically experienced both validation and resistance that shaped the trajectory of their leadership journeys. Validation contributed to greater self-efficacy, resulting in motivation to engage broader leadership; conversely, some leaders experienced resistance and devaluation. The emerging theory recognizes the influence of environmental context and self-awareness.

Women in Leadership: The Future of Christian Higher Education

ABSTRACT This article presents a discussion of the gender imbalance in senior-level leadership roles within the U.S. member institutions of the Council for Christian Colleges & Universities (CCCU), highlighting data across the last two decades. The underrepresentation of women in this sector is placed within a theological context and is compared with other sectors of U.S. higher education. Insights from the secular literature provide an introductory context for the articles presentation of the data. Although the CCCU member institutions collectively serve a student body that is 60% female, a 2015 analysis of individuals holding “vice president” or higher titles (e.g., senior vice president, executive vice president) revealed that women held fewer than 30% of those employed in any particular leadership role (e.g., chief academic officer) and only slightly over 20% of all senior leadership roles. Notably, when a national study compared the leadership composition of 1,481 evangelical non-profit organizations with their secular counterparts, the representation of women on boards and senior leadership teams was found to be about half of that found in the secular nonprofits (Reynolds, 2014). Although Christian colleges and universities have an opportunity to set the standard within higher education for identifying, encouraging, and deploying the gifts of individuals across racial and gender lines, a variety of environmental and internalized barriers hinder the affirmation and development of womens leadership identity and advancement. Five recommended action steps conclude the article, with a call to reimagine Christian higher education as being places of learning characterized by fully affirming and developing the potential of all within their span of care.

The High Impact Leader: Moments Matter in Accelerating Authentic Leadership Development (review)

In Part 2, “Institutional Models and Approaches,” Heather Hartwell and Crispin Farbrother, in Chapter 6, “Enhancing the First Year Experience through Personal Tutoring,” introduce the research findings of a pilot program at the School of Services Management, Bournemouth University, as part of the first-year experience. The program reviews Stepping Stones, a website created to help encourage a culture of learning and a sense of community for incoming students. They report that students who use it are more likely to succeed in subsequent years. Chapter 7, “Putting Students First: Developing Accessible and Integrated Support” by Liz Marr and Sheila Aynsley-Smith, describes the model used at Manchester Metropolitan University and introduces the Student Support Officers (SSO) pilot program. They describe its implementation and successful integration on campus. Similarly, Chapter 8, “Creating a Network of Student Support” by Barbara Lee and Alan Robinson, describes the Students 1st program, created to fill the need for a holistic and integrated system of student support at Southampton Solent University. The authors describe the process of uniting key university offices to provide accurate information and increase communication among the offices involved. In Chapter 9, “Platoons to Encourage Social Cohesion Amongst a Large and Diverse Undergraduate Population,” Peter Hill describes the creation of student peer groups (“platoons”) in the University of Westminster’s Business School. They were designed to provide student support during a 2003–2006 enrollment increase. The students involved relied on each other more for help in courses and showed an increase in grades and connection to the university than students in earlier years before the program’s implementation. “Strategic Approaches to the Development and Management of Personal Tutorial Systems in UK Higher Education” by Margo Blythman, Susan Orr, Daphne Hampton, Martina McLaughlin, and Harry Waterworth concludes Part 2. It describes the authors’ nine years of experience in developing a culture and structure for advising by combining theoretical constructs with the development of advising strategies. They focus on four key areas: (a) developing structures and cultures to create the position of the tutor coordinator, (b) relating the strategies of this work to the structure of the university/college, (c) harnessing resources, and (d) dealing with the difficulties encountered during this process. They include recommendations for developing an advising system. Part 3, “Issues and Implication for Staff,” contains four chapters describing various programs to support the development of advisors in professional and personal ways. Chapter 11, “Changing Practice in Tutorial Provision within Post-Compulsory Education” by Sally Wootton, highlights the need for the institution’s mission to incorporate the tutoring philosophy. In addition, as students’ needs change, Wootton suggests implementing new methods, such as mentoring, to ensure student success. Chapter 12, “‘Who’s Looking After Me?’— Supporting New Personal Tutors,” by Pauline Ridley, and Chapter 13, “Issues for Online Personal Tutoring: Staff Perceptions from an Online Distance Learning Programme” by Rosalind Crouch and Ruth Barrett, review various support structures in place for advisors. Ridley’s institution encourages new lecturers to complete the Postgraduate Certificate in Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. The program provides a safe place for lecturers to be supported in their struggles in working with students and helps them maintain the balance between teaching and advising. In support of 21st century teaching styles and student needs, Crouch and Barrett provide verbal and nonverbal strategies for online advisors. The information is also useful for advisors who meet with students face-to-face and can be implemented easily in daily work routines. The final chapter, “Working with a Lack of Structure: The Experience of Supporting WorkBased Learning” by Charlotte Ramage, reports the findings of the research conducted on students, mentors, and teachers who are involved in workbased learning, a new educational method for health care professionals. This chapter will also be helpful to professionals working with learning communities and other similar programs. As a U.S. citizen not familiar with the U.K. education system, I first found it difficult to understand the terminology used in the book. However, after I figured it out, the information allowed me to view advising in a more global way. Personal Tutoring in Higher Education is a resource that student personnel administrators can use to create new programs, help justify the work being done, and show the impact of our work in student success and retention.