Karen S. Calhoun

Prevalence of Traumatic Events and Peritraumatic Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in a Nonclinical Sample of College Students

This study investigated lifetime prevalence of traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms among 937 college students. Participants rated their lifetime experiences of traumatic events and, in response to their “most stressful” event, completed measures of objective stressor dimensions, PTSD, and peritraumatic reactions. Approximately 67% of respondents reported at least one traumatic event. An estimated 4% of the full sample (12% of traumatized individuals) met PTSD criteria within the past week. After controlling for vulnerability factors and objective characteristics, peritraumatic reactions remained strongly predictive of PTSD symptoms. Results are discussed with respect to immediate reactions to traumatic events as potential precursors of PTSD symptomatology.

Social phobia: An analysis of possible developmental factors.

Sixty-eight individuals with specific or generalized social phobia and 25 normal controls were assessed for presence of a family history of anxiety, childhood shyness, traumatic conditioning experiences, neuroticism, and extraversion. Subtype differences emerged, including significantly greater neuroticism and a more frequent history of shyness in the generalized subtype. Those with the generalized subtype also had significantly lower extraversion scores, and those with the specific subtype had a significantly higher frequency of traumatic conditioning episodes. Together, traumatic conditioning and childhood shyness predicted the presence of social phobia, although other unidentified factors also appeared to be relevant. The results are discussed in terms of potentially different modes of onset for the subtypes of social phobia and the role of neuroticism and introversion in the development of the disorder.

Risk recognition and trauma-related symptoms among sexually revictimized women

This study used experimental methodology to investigate the differential impact of various levels of sexual victimization on womens perceptions of risk and evaluative judgments of sexual assault within a dating interaction. Single- and multiple-incident victims were compared with nonvictims. Results supported the hypothesis that revictimized women would exhibit longer latencies than either single-incident victims or nonvictims in signaling that an audiotaped date rape should be halted. Revictimized women with greater posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, arousal symptoms in particular, exhibited latencies similar to those of nonvictims, whereas revictimized women with lower levels of PTSD symptoms had significantly longer latencies. Dissociative symptoms were not related to latency. These findings suggest that PTSD-related arousal symptoms may serve a buffering effect, increasing sensitivity to threat cues that portend a sexually coercive interaction.

Young adult women who report childhood intrafamilial sexual abuse: subsequent adjustment

Young adult women who had experienced incest and a matched comparison group were examined for differences in interpersonal functioning, sexual functioning, self-esteem, and emotional adjustment. Those reporting incest reported significantly poorer general social adjustment, especially in dating relationships. They had significantly lower levels of sexual satisfaction, lower self-esteem, and distorted body images, as well as greater depression and lower positive affect. These characteristics may be related not only to the incest experience but to the general family environment in which incest occurred, as significant differences in family characteristcs were also observed.

The Role of Alcohol Expectancies and Alcohol Consumption Among Sexually Victimized and Nonvictimized College Women

The present study investigated alcohol expectancies, alcohol consumption, sexual assertiveness, and the number of consensual sexual partners as potential risk factors for sexual assault among three groups of college women: nonvictimized, moderately victimized, and severely victimized. Women with severe victimization histories (attempted or completed rape), compared with nonvictims, reported more consensual sexual partners, less perceived assertiveness in their ability to refuse unwanted sexual advances, greater weekly alcohol consumption, and more positive outcome expectancies for alcohol including tension reduction, sexual enhancement, and global positive change. In addition, for both victimized and nonvictimized women, consumption of alcohol and expectancies of social enhancement following alcohol use independently accounted for a significant portion of the variance of sexual activity following alcohol consumption. Findings are discussed with respect to research aimed at reducing sexual assault among women who are at highest risk for sexual violence.

Homophobia and Physical Aggression Toward Homosexual and Heterosexual Individuals

This study examined the relationship between homophobia (defined as self-reported negative affect, avoidance, and aggression toward homosexuals) and homosexual aggression. Self-identified heterosexual college men were assigned to homophobic (n = 26) and nonhomophobic (n = 26) groups on the basis of their scores on the Homophobia Scale (HS; L. W. Wright, H. E. Adams, & J. A. Bernat, 1999). Physical aggression was examined by having participants administer shocks to a fictitious opponent during a competitive reaction time (RT) task under the impression that the study was examining the relationship between sexually explicit material and RT. Participants were exposed to a male homosexual erotic videotape, their affective reactions were assessed, and they then competed in the RT task against either a heterosexual or a homosexual opponent. The homophobic group reported significantly more negative affect, anxiety, and anger-hostility after watching the homosexual erotic videotape than did the nonhomophobic group. Additionally, the homophobic group was significantly more aggressive toward the homosexual opponent, but the groups did not differ in aggression toward the heterosexual opponent.

Associations among symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder and self-reported health in sexually assaulted women.

Symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were examined for their association with health status in a sample of sexual assault victims. Hypotheses were that symptoms of each disorder would account for unique variance in health status among individuals exposed to traumatic stressors. Fifty-seven sexually assaulted college women were assessed for prior victimization history, assault characteristics, and depressive and PTSD symptoms. When prior history of sexual victimization, assault severity, and physical reactions during the assault were controlled, hierarchical multiple regression models indicated that symptoms of PTSD and depression were significantly associated with global health perceptions and severity of self-reported health symptoms. Only PTSD symptoms were significantly associated with reproductive health symptoms. The results suggest that both symptoms of PTSD and depression account for the relationship between exposure and health impairment among sexual assault victims.

Sexual Coercion and Attraction to Sexual Aggression in a Community Sample of Young Men

Few studies have examined sexually coercive behavior in nonoffending yound adults other than college students. The present investigation examined self-report measures of peer delinquency, sexual promiscuity, hostility toward women, anger, and alcohol consumption on dates as predictors of sexual coercion and attraction to sexual aggression in a cross section of 65 nonoffending young men from a rural community. Delinquency was the strongest predictor of both coercive sexual behavior and attraction to sexual aggression. Attraction to sexual aggression also was significantly predicted by hostility toward women. Individuals with no histories of committing sexually coercive acts but who were highly attracted to sexual aggression shared profiles similar to sexually coercive men on hostility toward women, delinquency, and alcohol consumption on dates. Sexually noncoercive men low on attraction scored significantly lower than sexually coercive men on hostility toward women and alcohol consumption on dates and reported significantly less delinquent behavior than both other groups.

Resistance to sexual aggression: Personality, attitudinal, and situational factors.

This studys purpose was (i) to assess resistance to sexual aggression, from kissing/fondling to intercourse; (ii) to test the relative efficacy of three theoretical models (Victim Precipitation, Social Control, and Situational Blame) for predicting resistance to acquaintance rape. Seventy-five percent of the 206 university students reported vicitimization. Average time since victimization was 2.03 years. Sixty-eight percent of victims successfully resisted their most severe victimization attempt. Four situational factors predicted resistance: isolation of incident site, previous victim—offender relationship, previous victim—offender sexual intimacy, and clarity of victim nonconsent. Two personality variables, the California Personality Inventory scales of dominance and social presence, distinguished successful from unsuccessful resisters. Attitudinal measures were not statistically significant.

Victim resistance to rape: the relationship of previous victimization, demographics, and situational factors

The relationship between degree of resistance to sexual assault and a victims demographic characteristics, her previous experience with violence, and situational characteristics of the assault were investigated. Victim responses during the assault were characterized as no resistance, verbal resistance, or physical resistance. Demographic characteristics and prior experience with violence did not discriminate degree of resistance. However, victim resistance was significantly predicted by six of the assault characteristics. Victims showed greater resistance if the assailant was a friend or relative, if the assailant made verbal threats, and if he physically restrained or injured her. Greater resistance was also associated with less sexual abuse.