Karin Schweizer

Spatial Cognition: The Role of Landmark, Route, and Survey Knowledge in Human and Robot Navigation

The paper gives a brief overview of the interdisciplinary DFG priority program on spatial cognition and presents one specific theme which was the topic of a recent workshop in Gottingen in some more detail. A taxonomy of landmark, route, and survey knowledge for navigation tasks proposed at the workshop is presented. Different ways of acquiring route knowledge are discussed. The importance of employing different spatial reference systems for carrying out navigation tasks is emphasized. Basic mechanisms of spatial memory in human and animal navigation are presented. After outlining the fundamental representational issues, methodological issues in robot and human navigation are discussed. Three applications of spatial cognition research in navigation tasks are given to exemplify both technological relevance and human impact of basic research in cognition.

The Route Direction Effect and its Constraints

The route direction effect can be characterized as follows: When a person has learned a route and imagines that he or she is at a specific point along this route, then it is easier for him or her to imagine him or her-self at another point on the route which lies in the direction in which the route was learned than the other way around. This means that route knowledge includes information on the route if acquisition, i.e. the direction of acquisition is corepresented in cognitive maps. Within a network theory approach, the route direction effect can be conceived of as a specific asymmetry in the spread of activation. Priming-experiments were carried out to determine a time window for the experimental realization of asymmetrical activation spread. We were actually able to show that the route direction effect disappears when the Stimulus Onset Asynchrony is extended. This was to be expected because a longer SOA causes the target to be pre-activated, regardless of whether i t represents an object which was positioned in the direction of acquisition, or not. In further experiments we showed that if route knowledge is gained via a gradient sequence, then normal ecological conditions of perception must have existed: The direction of perception must correspond to the direction of movement. Objects, as well as their surroundings, must be perceived within the normal optical flow. Otherwise the information about the direction of acquisition cannot be adequately incorporated, and the route direction effect does not occur.

A Field Study on Distance Education and Communication: Experiences of a Virtual Tutor.

In a field study on distance education and communication we varied the social presence of a tutor in four degrees: a tutor mediated by verbal, written information (condition 1), the same tutor mediated by written information and various personal views (condition 2), the same tutor mediated by written and spoken information (condition 3), and the same tutor mediated by text, views and spoken language (condition 4). Three hypotheses derived from cues-filtered-out (e.g. Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976; Spears & Lea, 1992) and adaptation theories (e.g. Clark & Brennan, 1996; Walther, 1992) were tested: (1) To experience the tutor with less social presence leads to extremely emotional evaluations as well as more task oriented, informal, and tense reactions compared to conditions in which the tutor can be experienced with greater social presence. (2) Adaptation to the medium takes place via the use of typographical sideways symbols. (3) Time is an important factor in adaptation: with passing time, differences between groups converge. We recorded data from 98 German male students who participated for 9 weeks in an off-campus online seminar on certain topics of General Psychology. Instruction took place via 6 virtual rooms (Web pages) on the Internet (library, virtual classroom etc.). The analyses of studentss online activities and their communication style are based on a large amount of data: Altogether, students logged in 3608 times, read 1240 mails, and composed 160 mails. The communication style observed in the mails partly confirms hypotheses (1) and (2). We also noticed significant changes in the communication style with progressing time. The data of the investigated sample, however, could not fully support hypothesis (3). Here, further research seems to be necessary.

Evaluation of a UML-Based Versus an IEC 61131-3-Based Software Engineering Approach for Teaching PLC Programming

A field experiment investigated the evaluation, teaching, and application of two different approaches to automatic control in programmable logic controllers, in particular comparing the Unified Modeling Language (UML) to the classic procedural paradigm (IEC 61131-3). A total of 85 apprentices from a vocational school for production engineering with a specialization in mechatronics took part in the training and the experiment. This paper details the results of the training using both approaches, and the correlations found between the modeling and/or programming performance and cognitive abilities, interest, workload, expertise, and school grades. In general, the results show that students can be trained to carry out authentic programming tasks within one and a half days, even for beginners in programming. The data distinguish the two approaches. Function Block Diagram programming (IEC 61131-3) can be best predicted by the grade in mathematics, programming experience, and cognitive demand. For performance in UML class diagram and state chart (UML/CD+SC) modeling, the grade in mathematics plays an even more prominent role; this explains the greater variance in modeling performance in the UML group than in the 61131/Function Block Diagram group. With respect to other findings, the paper concludes that special problem-solving skills and skills for abstract thinking should be taught when teaching UML-based modeling approaches.

Oblique Angled Intersections and Barriers: Navigating through a Virtual Maze

The configuration of a spatial layout has a substantial effect on the acquisition and the representation of the environment. In four experiments, we investigated navigation difficulties arising at oblique angled intersections. In the first three studies we investigated specific arrow-fork configurations. In dependence on the branch subjects use to enter the intersection different decision latencies and numbers of errors arise. If subjects see the intersection as a fork, it is more difficult to find the correct way as if it is seen as an arrow. In a fourth study we investigated different heuristics people use while making a detour around a barrier. Detour behaviour varies with the perspective. If subjects learn and navigate through the maze in a field perspective they use a heuristic of preferring right angled paths. If they have a view from above and acquire their knowledge in an observer perspective they use oblique angled paths more often.

Benefit and Evaluation of Interactive 3D Process Data Visualization for the Presentation of Complex Problems

The increasing complexity of industrial plants and more intelligent equipment technology lead to a growing amount of process data. The approach of interactive 3D process data visualization and associated training concepts for processes without a process model can assists operators to analyze complex processes. This paper describes a set of experiments that analyzed the benefits of a 3D data presentation as part of an HMI in combination with different types of operator training in process control.

Die mentale Repräsentation von Konzepten, Wörtern und Figuren

Wir verstehen als Wortbedeutung die Beziehung, die Worter mit Konzepten eingehen (Herrmann, 1994). Das kognitive System des Menschen verfugt unter anderem uber mentale (interne) Reprasentationen von Wortern und von Konzepten. Die Wort- und die Konzeptreprasentationen sind in komplexer Weise miteinander assoziativ verknupft (vergleiche auch Herrmann & Graf, 1996). Wir beginnen unsere Erorterungen mit Anmerkungen zum Begriff der mentalen Reprasentation.

Usability evaluation on teaching and applying model-driven object oriented approaches for PLC software

In machine and plant automation, model-driven object oriented (oo) programming of Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) software is becoming an alternative to the state-of-the-art programming. The authors present the results of previously conducted experiments on the usability of the classic procedural paradigm (IEC 61131-3) compared to model-driven approaches for PLC programming, in particular Unified Modeling Language (UML) and domain specific modeling languages. Subsequently, the newest study on this issue is presented, including the experimental design and the experiments parameters, comparing state-of-the-art FDB (IEC 61131-3) programming approach to a model-driven UML supported approach. Finally, we show the studys results and discuss our findings and their meaning for future experiments, concerning the complexity of the tasks required to develop a PLC-program, the influence of previous knowledge, and the realization of constant boundary conditions for experimental studies.

Einflüsse des Wissenserwerbs auf die Linearisierung beim Sprechen über räumliche Anordnungen

Zusammenfassung. Der Artikel befast sich mit Determinanten der Linearisierung beim Sprechen uber Raum. Die bekannten Linearisierungsprinzipien, wie das Prinzip der naturlichen Ordnung, berucksichtigen in erster Linie Kennzeichen des zu sequenzierenden Materials und des Sprachproduktionsprozesses. Ausgangspunkt unserer Untersuchungen ist die Annahme, das die sprachliche Linearisierung von Raumkomponenten zudem vom Wissenserwerb beeinflust wird. Zur Prufung dieser Annahme werden sechs Experimente vorgelegt (N = 272). Die Teilnehmenden erwarben dabei Wissen uber eine raumliche Anordnung, uber die sie anschliesend sprachen. Die dabei verwendete Linearisierung wurde als abhangige Variable erhoben. In allen Experimenten zeigten sich Einflusse des Wissenserwerbs, worauf wir als Geneseeffekt rekurrieren. Besondere Bedeutsamkeit kam der ersten Erfahrung mit einer Anordnung zu (Ankereffekt). Charakteristika beider Effekte werden dargestellt und vor dem Hintergrund von Gedachtnis- und Sprachpsychologie diskutiert.

Mental Models in Process Visualization - Could They Indicate the Effectiveness of an Operator's Training?

Nowadays process plant visualizations and operations take place without the operators physical presence at the technical device. As a conesquence a lot of complex systems must be visualized simultaneously on one or more monitors. Conventional two-dimensional man machine interfaces hardly meet the requirements of those increasing complexity of production processes. One approach to deal with the increasing number of faults during process plant monitoring is the creation and implementation of 3D visualizations. We examined the development of mental models with 2D and 3D visualizations and different forms of training (freeze image vs. slider vs. slider with interaction) regarding completeness and structure as well as the relation of the quality of problem solving and the accurate recognizing of critical situations. Additionally, we investigated the mental demand in different groups of visualization and training.