Karl G. D. Bailey

Good-Enough Representations in Language Comprehension

People comprehend utterances rapidly and without conscious effort. Traditional theories assume that sentence processing is algorithmic and that meaning is derived compositionally. The language processor is believed to generate representations of the linguistic input that are complete, detailed, and accurate. However, recent findings challenge these assumptions. Investigations of the misinterpretation of both garden-path and passive sentences have yielded support for the idea that the meaning people obtain for a sentence is often not a reflection of its true content. Moreover, incorrect interpretations may persist even after syntactic reanalysis has taken place. Our good-enough approach to language comprehension holds that language processing is sometimes only partial and that semantic representations are often incomplete. Future work will elucidate the conditions under which sentence processing is simply good enough.

Disfluencies affect the parsing of garden-path sentences

Abstract Spontaneous speech differs in several ways from the sentences often studied in psycholinguistics experiments. One important difference is that naturally produced utterances often contain disfluencies. In this study, we examined how the presence of “uh” in a spoken sentence might affect processes that assign syntactic structure (i.e., parsing). Four experiments are reported. In the first, participants judged the grammaticality of sentences that had disfluencies either right before the head noun of the ambiguous phrase or after (e.g., Sandra bumped into the busboy and the uh uh waiter told her to be careful or Sandra bumped into the busboy and the waiter uh uh told her to be careful ). Sentences in the latter condition were judged grammatical less often. This result was replicated in the second experiment, in which disfluencies were replaced with environmental sounds. These findings suggest that interruptions can affect syntactic parsing, and the content of the interruption need not be speechlike. In Experiments 3 and 4 we tested whether these effects occurred because listeners use interruptions as cues to help resolve a structural ambiguity. Results from these latter two grammaticality judgment tasks suggest that when an interruption occurs before an ambiguous noun phrase, comprehenders are more likely to assume that the noun phrase is the subject of a new clause rather than the object of an old one, and furthermore, it appears that the parser is relatively insensitive to the form of the interruption. We conclude that disfluencies can influence the parser by signaling a particular structure; at the same time, for the parser, a disfluency might be any interruption to the flow of speech.

Disfluencies and human language comprehension

Spoken language contains disfluencies, which include editing terms such as uh and um as well as repeats and corrections. In less than ten years the question of how disfluencies are handled by the human sentence comprehension system has gone from virtually ignored to a topic of major interest in computational linguistics and psycholinguistics. We discuss relevant empirical findings and describe a computational model that captures how disfluencies influence parsing and comprehension. The research reviewed shows that the parser, which presumably evolved to handle conversations, deals with disfluencies in a way that is efficient and linguistically principled. The success of this research program reinforces the current trend in cognitive science to view cognitive mechanisms as adaptations to real-world constraints and challenges.

The processing of filled pause disfluencies in the visual world

Publisher Summary The most common type of overt interruption of fluent speech, or disfluency, is the filled pause is in which filler interrupts production of an utterance. Speakers produce filled pauses for a variety of reasons, such as to discourage interruptions or to gain additional time to plan utterances. It reports a visual world experiment in which participants eye movements were monitored while they responded to ambiguous utterances containing filled pauses by manipulating objects placed in front of them. Two particular patterns of eye movements have been used to draw inferences about comprehension: anticipatory and confirmatory eye movements. Participants eye movements and actions suggested that filled pauses informed resolution of the current referential ambiguity, but did not affect the final parse. The chapter presents an experiment that directly tests whether a cueing mechanism can modulate the interpretation of a fully ambiguous utterance in the presence of a fully ambiguous visual world. The results suggest that filled pauses provide a unique window on sentence processing in general, because they show what ambiguities are relevant at that point in the utterance.

Faith-Learning Integration, Critical Thinking Skills, and Student Development in Christian Education

Although the integration of faith and learning presupposes a learner, little theoretical work has addressed the role of students in faith-learning integration. Moreover, many students perceive faith-learning integration to be the work of teachers and institutions, suggesting that for learners, integration is a passive experience. This theoretical paper proposes an active, critical-thinking skills model for the conduct of faith-learning integration that may guide teachers in developing courses that support students in developing the skills needed for independent faith-learning integration.

Delight or Distraction: An Exploratory Analysis of Sabbath-Keeping Internalization

Internalization of religious motivation is associated with increased subjective well-being. However, much of the work on internalization focuses on widespread, low-cost religious practices. We propose that distinctive, high-cost, and meaningful Christian practices, such as Sabbath keeping, may be related to the internalization of religion—and thus increased well-being—when they occur within a community. Using a factor-cluster approach to develop an instrument to measure the internalization of Sabbath keeping among Seventh-day Adventists, we found a positive relationship between deeper internalization and higher subjective well-being. Importantly, the relationship between internalization of Sabbath-keeping practice and well-being was only weakly meditated by a more general measure of religious internalization, suggesting separate contributions of internalization for distinctive high-cost practices and widespread low-cost practices.