Karolina Pomorska

The European External Action Service and agenda-setting in European foreign policy

The new High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (HR) and the European External Action Service (EEAS) have emerged after the Lisbon Treaty as a potential driving force in European foreign policy. This article critically reviews the first two years of the existence of the EEAS to find out whether these new players have managed to shape the direction of the European Unions (EU) external activities. Building on a typology of agenda-setting strategies in the EU developed by Princen (2011), it successively examines how the HR and the EEAS have been trying to ‘build credibility’ and ‘to gain attention’ for their priorities. The empirical analysis shows that priority has been given to addressing the ‘credibility challenge’, with a particular emphasis on capacity-building. The strategies of mobilizing partners and arousing interest through framing still leave scope for improvement.

‘In the face of adversity’: explaining the attitudes of EEAS officials vis-à-vis the new service

The establishment of the European External Action Service (EEAS) by the Lisbon Treaty was preceded by time-consuming negotiations about the composition, organization, budget and accountability of the service. In spite of the negative views among EEAS officials concerning the actual implementation of the reforms, they displayed a surprisingly positive attitude towards the new organization and identified strongly with it. This contribution aims to explain this empirical puzzle by drawing on two different approaches to attitude formation: one based on material calculations and another one on socio-psychological factors. It shows that a narrow understanding of rationality based on short-term career-related calculations cannot account for the support that the EEAS garnered among its ranks since a majority of officials reported a negative impact in terms of careers prospects. An explanation of positive attitudes towards the EEAS thus needs to take into account a broader conception of ‘career prospects’, including other indicators such as reputation and job satisfaction. Moreover, this contribution shows how a strong identification with the European Union (EU) and a desire to make EU foreign policy work might also explain why officials profess strong support for the EEAS.

Invisible and unaccountable? National representatives and Council officials in EU Foreign Policy

The role of officials from the working groups and the Council Secretariat dealing with European Union (EU) external relations has grown in recent years as a result of the increase in the thematic and geographic scope of EU foreign policy and, in particular, the development of the EUs capabilities in crisis management. The increase in competences of Brussels-based bodies has occurred in parallel to a transformation of the policy-making process that challenges intergovernmentalist assumptions about the extent of the control exercised by the member states over foreign policy-making. This contribution tracks the impact of Brusselization and socialization processes on Council officials and national representatives, which has resulted in these actors playing a role beyond that foreseen in the original delegation mandate. This inevitably raises questions of accountability in EU foreign policy.

The influence of newer member states in the European Union: the case of Poland and the Eastern partnership

This article seeks to examine and assess the role of Poland in the early stages of the making of the Eastern Partnership of the European Union. First, it briefly reviews Polands aims and ambitions with regard to the European Unions policy towards its eastern neighbours, both before and since it joined the European Union in 2004. Second, it describes and analyses the Eastern Partnership, including its added value for the European Neighbourhood Policy. Third, it draws on a range of interviews carried out by the authors in Brussels and Warsaw on Polands role in the initial formation of the Eastern Partnership, as seen by its partners in the other member states and European institutions. In addition, it seeks to unpack some of the early stage lessons learnt by the Polish government about how best to achieve its ambitions in the European Union, and notes the remaining weaknesses of the Polish administration, particularly in the area of administrative capacity.

Manufacturing Esprit de Corps: The Case of the European External Action Service

The creation of the European External Action Service (EEAS) begs the question of whether its officials might develop an esprit de corps − understood as the emergence of shared beliefs and values among the individuals within a group and their desire to achieve a common goal − and how this might be achieved. Since the EEAS is composed of officials originating from different institutions, this contribution discusses the challenges associated with aggregating different beliefs and values within the Service. The article examines five factors that have the potential to promote organizational esprit de corps, including communication, leadership, public image, trust and training. It concludes that the first two years of operation of the Service do not bode well for the emergence of an esprit de corps and that, consequently, this might undermine the coherence and effectiveness of the EEAS itself.

Does Size Matter? CFSP Committees after Enlargement

Abstract This article examines the impact of the 2004 and 2007 enlargements on CFSP committees. It aims to determine in which manner enlargement has affected the deliberative nature of CFSP committees and in which ways formal and informal mechanisms have contributed to overcoming deadlock in the decision‐making process. The article concludes, first, that formal and informal adjustment mechanisms have ensured a smooth functioning of the CFSP. Second, socialization and consensual decision‐making are still prevalent in the practice of CFSP bodies and have prevented deadlock. Moreover, learning processes remain crucial in committee governance, allowing newcomers to familiarize themselves with CFSP practices. As regards legitimacy, however, a less positive assessment can be made. By increasing the informality of CFSP negotiations and the role of ‘like‐minded’ groups, and decreasing the role of formal meetings, enlargement may have contributed to an erosion of the CFSP’s democratic legitimacy.

Secretariat, Facilitator or Policy Entrepreneur? Role Perceptions of Officials of the Council Secretariat

The Council Secretariat General has emerged as one of the institutional winners of the dynamic development of the EU’s foreign and security policy, especially in the field of crisis management. Despite this, the role of the Council Secretariat in European foreign policy remains under researched. Based on extensive qualitative and quantitative data, the article provides new insights into the context of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by examining the role(s) of the Council Secretariat and its officials from the perspective of the latter. Firstly, it discusses the theoretical framework drawing on the insights of role theory. Secondly, it provides a historical account of how the Secretariat has developed into the kind of actor it is today – especially in foreign and security policies – and also presents rich empirical evidence about EU diplomats (e.g. nationality, professional background, etc.). Third, it explores in detail the officials’ views on the roles they themselves play and the roles of the Secretariat as an institution involved in the making of European foreign policy. In this regard, the article reveals interesting differences amongst the constitutive parts of the Secretariat as to how they perceive both their individual and institutional roles. It also uncovers potential conflicts in perceptions between old and new institutional roles.

Trust and Decision‐making in Times of Crisis: The EU's Response to the Events in Ukraine

It is a common assumption that through decades of co-operation there has been an emergence of trust between the Member States of the European Union. Yet, we have little evidence about the nature of trust and its implications for decision-making, in particular in times of crisis. Hence, our articles central question: how does trust matter in the process of decision-making during crisis? Our argument is that uncertainty during the crisis enabled trust-building between the actors: Member States and European institutions. In the case of the Ukrainian crisis, this happened in parallel to the decreasing levels of trust in EU–Russia relations. Consequently, the EU was able to agree and implement the instruments of coercive power. To illustrate our argument, we look at the adoption of EU sanctions in reaction to the annexation of Crimea, the downing of the Malaysian Airlines MH17 plane and the war in Donbass.

Attitudes, Identities and the Emergence of an esprit de corps in the EEAS

The establishment of the European External Action Service (EEAS) constituted an original case of institutional engineering, merging departments (Directorates-General) from the European Commission and the Secretariat General of the Council, as well as the addition of a new group of officials from the diplomatic services of the EU member states. The end product had the potential to bring about a truly European diplomatic mindset; however, it was ridden with numerous problems from the start. Not least, one general assumption was that each of these categories of officials would bring to the post their own organisational culture, attitudes and values to the EEAS, and the European Union (EU) more generally, complicating what had already been a difficult process of organisational reform. Drawing on extensive empirical evidence, this chapter revisits such claims by examining the attitudes and beliefs of EEAS officials and the challenges associated with accommodating different beliefs and values within one organisation.

Foreign ministries and limits to organisational learning in Central Eastern Europe

Joining the European Union (EU) has had a transformative effect for the foreign policies of the new member states and the Ministries of Foreign Affairs (MFAs). There is a growing body of literature that analyses Europeanisation of foreign policies of EU member states as a result of their participation in Common Foreign and Security Policy. At the same time, the significance of learning in bringing change in foreign policy remains underexplored avenue of international relations (IR) and foreign policy analysis (FPA). This article demonstrates how learning processes can contribute to the processes of Europeanisation and shows what are the possible inhibitors to institutionalisation of the lessons learnt at individual level.