Katarzyna Smolarz

The Future of Baltic Sea Populations: Local Extinction or Evolutionary Rescue?

Environmental change challenges local and global survival of populations and species. In a species-poor environment like the Baltic Sea this is particularly critical as major ecosystem functions may be upheld by single species. A complex interplay between demographic and genetic characteristics of species and populations determines risks of local extinction, chances of re-establishment of lost populations, and tolerance to environmental changes by evolution of new adaptations. Recent studies show that Baltic populations of dominant marine species are locally adapted, have lost genetic variation and are relatively isolated. In addition, some have evolved unusually high degrees of clonality and others are representatives of endemic (unique) evolutionary lineages. We here suggest that a consequence of local adaptation, isolation and genetic endemism is an increased risk of failure in restoring extinct Baltic populations. Additionally, restricted availability of genetic variation owing to lost variation and isolation may negatively impact the potential for evolutionary rescue following environmental change.

Environmental Governance of the Baltic Sea

This edited volume presents a comprehensive and coherent interdisciplinary analysis ofchallenges and possibilities for sustainable governance of the Baltic Sea ecosystem bycombining knowledge and a ...

LC-MS measurment of free steroids in mussels (Mytilus trossulus) from the southern Baltic Sea.

The aim of this study was to identify and quantify natural steroid hormones (17β-estradiol E2, estriol E3, estrone E1, testosterone T) and xenoestrogen (17α-ethinylestradiol EE2) in gills and gonads of Mytilus trossulus from the Gulf of Gdańsk, Poland, using the LC-MS technique based on the enzymatic digestion of tissues, SPE extraction, and subsequent LC-MS analysis of the eluates. As a result, spatial differences in several steroid hormone concentrations were detected. While the highest concentrations of testosterone and natural estrogens were documented in mussels collected at the reference station (app. 13 ng g(-1) wet weight for T, 9 ng g(-1)w.w. for E2 and 3.5 ng g(-1)w.w. for E1), decreased levels of natural steroids and increased levels of 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) were determined in individuals from the sewage treatment plant zone (app. 5 ng g(-1)w.w. for T, 3 ng g(-1)w.w. for E1, 1 ng g(-1)w.w. for E2 and E3, 1 ng g(-1)w.w. for EE2). No statistically significant tissue-related changes in steroids concentrations were found, but a trend towards higher steroids level in gills than in gonad was observed.

Neoplasia in Estuarine Bivalves: Effect of Feeding Behaviour and Pollution in the Gulf of Gdansk (Baltic Sea, Poland)

The incidence of tumors in bivalve molluscs is receiving increased attention due to possible detrimental effects on harvested stocks. Although the etiology or causes of neoplasias remains unclear, pollution by carcinogenic agents is implicated in the heavily exploited littoral zones of coastal waters. In the Gulf of Gdansk, southern Baltic Sea, a higher prevalence of the disorder was observed in infaunal facultative (deposit/suspension) feeders compared to epifaunal obligate suspension-feeders, providing a new behavioural aspect of the tumor. Recent studies also reveal a potential cause-and-effect relationship between sediment factors and the incidence of neoplasia across a range of environmental properties.

Environmental Governance of the Baltic Sea: Identifying Key Challenges, Research Topics and Analytical Approaches

The Baltic Sea ecosystem is subject to a wide array of societal pressures and associated environmental risks (e.g. eutrophication, oil discharges, chemical pollution, overfishing and invasive alien species). Despite several years of substantial efforts by state and non-state actors, it is still highly unlikely that the regionally agreed environmental objectives of reaching “good environmental status” by 2021 in the HELCOM BSAP (Baltic Sea Action Plan) and by 2020 in the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) will be met. This chapter identifies key research topics, as well as presents analytical perspectives for analysing the gap between knowledge and action in Baltic Sea environmental governance. It does so by outlining important trends and key challenges associated with Baltic Sea environmental governance, as well as by summarising the scope and results of individual chapters of this interdisciplinary volume. The analysis reveals the development of increasingly complex governance arrangements and the ongoing implementation of the holistic Ecosystem Approach to Management, as two general trends that together contribute to three key challenges associated with (1) regional and cross-sectoral coordination and collaboration, (2) coping with complexity and uncertainty in science-policy interactions and (3) developing communication and knowledge sharing among stakeholder groups. Furthermore, to facilitate analysis of environmental governance opportunities and obstacles both within and across specific environmental issues, this chapter reviews the scientific literature to pinpoint key research issues and questions linked to the identified governance challenges.

Sex-related differences in steroid concentrations in the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis trossulus) from the southern Baltic Sea

This paper reports on sex-related differences in free steroid hormone concentrations including the concentrations of three naturally occurring estrogens (17β-estradiol E2, estrone E1, and estriol E3) and one androgen (testosterone T) in the tissues (gills and gonads) of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis trossulus sampled from the Gulf of Gdańsk (Baltic Sea, Poland). The dissimilarity in steroid concentrations between tissues was particularly evident in the T concentration with a level in gills almost three times higher compared to gonads (on average, 15.38 ng/g w.w. and 5.31 ng/g w.w., respectively, p=0.00008), suggesting its exogenous origin. In general, a tendency towards a skewed steroid profile related to sex, with E2 more abundant for males and T for females, was observed. Female gonads were characterized by a higher level of T than testis (4.61 ng/g w.w. for females and 0.70 ng/g w.w. for males, p=0.0121). At the same time, the level of E2 found in the testis was higher than in the ovary (4.81 ng/g w.w. and 3.86 ng/g w.w., respectively); however, the difference was not statistically significant. As for gills, similar trend with T and E2 being more abundant in males was observed. At the same time, no disturbances in the sex ratio and gametogenesis process were observed which suggests i) efficient deactivation of free forms of steroids, and/or ii) their little or no physiological role.

Biological Invasions: A Case Study of Baltic Sea Environmental Governance

This chapter describes bioinvasions as an example of a relatively new crosscutting domain of environmental governance whose management is affected by a high level of uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity. In the Baltic Sea region, legislation and policies related to invasive alien species (IAS) are still under development, and as a consequence, there are a few legally binding instruments dealing with the problem. Due to the fact that environmental changes linked to other environmental risks (eutrophication, maritime transportation, climate change) may intensify biological incursions, development of a uniform policy, followed by its ratification among EU Member States in the Baltic Sea region as well as Russia, is generally seen as a top priority for many actors involved in environmental governance. Hence, the adoption of a precautionary approach and the Ecosystem Approach to Management (EAM) driven by precise goals and executed by policies and best practices are proposed as holistic and necessary management tools for preventing and controlling bioinvasions. This chapter focuses on barriers and opportunities for the implementation of the EAM concept and on identifying possible ways to improve the effectiveness of IAS management. Finally, we argue that biological invasions and in particular their consequences may impact on a wide set of ecosystem goods and services, and therefore, holistic management that takes into account interdependencies among environmental issues is required.

Elevated gonadal atresia as biomarker of endocrine disruptors: Field and experimental studies using Mytilus trossulus (L.) and 17-alpha ethinylestradiol (EE2)

In the present work we compared the type and frequency of gonadal abnormalities among Mytilus trossulus populations from the Gulf of Gdańsk, Baltic Sea. Observed histopathologies were grouped as regressive changes (RC, gonadal atresia (GA) and regression (GR)), progressive changes (PC, gonadal tumors) and intersex. Sex-based and spatial differences in frequency of RC were found, with the highest frequency of RC and PC found in mussels from polluted station B followed by mussels from station A located near a purification plant outlet. Bivalves from the reference area had the lowest frequency of RC. In order to confirm biomarker applicability of RC, an exposure experiment with model xenoestrogen 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) was performed. The exposure of M. trossulus to 50 and 500ngdL-1 of EE2 resulted in an increased frequency of gonadal regression and atresia, including melanized hemocytes infiltration in seminiferous tubules. We thus suggest that these changes can serve as biomarkers of endocrine disrupting compounds in biomonitoring studies.

Sewage treatment plant associated genetic differentiation in the blue mussel from the Baltic Sea and Swedish west coast

Human-derived environmental pollutants and nutrients that reach the aquatic environment through sewage effluents, agricultural and industrial processes are constantly contributing to environmental changes that serve as drivers for adaptive responses and evolutionary changes in many taxa. In this study, we examined how two types of point sources of aquatic environmental pollution, harbors and sewage treatment plants, affect gene diversity and genetic differentiation in the blue mussel in the Baltic Sea area and off the Swedish west coast (Skagerrak). Reference sites (REF) were geographically paired with sites from sewage treatments plant (STP) and harbors (HAR) with a nested sampling scheme, and genetic differentiation was evaluated using a high-resolution marker amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). This study showed that genetic composition in the Baltic Sea blue mussel was associated with exposure to sewage treatment plant effluents. In addition, mussel populations from harbors were genetically divergent, in contrast to the sewage treatment plant populations, suggesting that there is an effect of pollution from harbors but that the direction is divergent and site specific, while the pollution effect from sewage treatment plants on the genetic composition of blue mussel populations acts in the same direction in the investigated sites.

Intersexuality in the Blue Mussel Mytilus edulis Complex (Mytilidae) from the Baltic Sea and the Danish Strait

Abstract: Populations of Mytilus edulis complex were studied from 13 stations located at three areas of the Baltic Sea (the Gulf of Gdańsk, Poland; Tvärminne area, Finland; Trosa Archipelago, Sweden) and the Skagerrak sound (Kristineberg, Sweden). The main purpose of the study was to document the occurrence of intersexuality along longitudinal salinity change using squash and histology for comparative reasons. Intersex was identified in all four geographical areas at an average frequency of 1.8%. Squash technique revealed the highest intersex frequency in the Gulf of Gdańsk (up to 6.25%) whereas histology examination did so in the Kristineberg area (up to 10%). In the Tvärminne area and in the Trosa Archipelago the average frequency of intersex did not exceed 2% regardless of the technique used; this suggests a natural induction of the phenomenon. Statistically significant spatial differences in intersex frequency were confirmed for mussels inhabiting polluted hotspots in the Gulf of Gdańsk and at the west coast of Sweden (Kristineberg). Therefore, for these localities artificial induction of intersexuality as a consequence of adverse environmental threats (pollution, parasite outbreaks) is further suggested. Furthermore, squash technique - being less sensitive in identifying intersex when compared to histology - is not recommended for mussels with severe reproductive impairments making a proper analysis of gonads impossible. Intersexual individuals were also characterized by less developed gonads and lower gonado-somatic index (GSI) than males and females. Significantly lower GSI revealed less energy allocation towards reproduction in populations from the Trosa Archipelago and Tvärminne area in comparison to those from the Gulf of Gdańsk and from Kristineberg.