Katherine Heck

Socioeconomic Status and Breastfeeding Initiation among California Mothers

Objectives. To examine multiple dimensions of socioeconomic status and breastfeeding among a large, random sample of ethnically diverse women. Methods. This study used logistic regression analysis to examine the influence of a range of socioeconomic factors on the chances of ever breastfeeding among a stratified random sample of 10,519 women delivering live births in California for 1999 through 2001. Measures of socioeconomic status included family income as a percentage of the federal poverty level, maternal education, paternal education, maternal occupation, and paternal occupation. Results. Consistent with previous research, there was a marked socioeconomic gradient in breastfeeding. Women with higher family incomes, those who had or whose partners had higher education levels, and women who had or whose partners had professional or executive occupations were more likely than their counterparts to breastfeed. After adjustment for many potential confounders, maternal and paternal education remained positively associated with breastfeeding, while income and occupation were no longer significant. Compared with other racial or ethnic groups, foreign-born Latina women were the most likely to breastfeed. Conclusions. The significant association of maternal and paternal education with breastfeeding, even after adjustment for income, occupation, and many other factors, suggests that social policies affecting educational attainment may be important factors in breastfeeding. Breastfeeding rates may be influenced by health education specifically or by more general levels of schooling among mothers and their partners. The continuing importance of racial/ethnic differences after adjustment for socioeconomic factors could reflect unmeasured socioeconomic effects, cultural differences, and/or policies in Latin American countries.

Family Structure, Socioeconomic Status, and Access to Health Care for Children

OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that among children of lower socioeconomic status (SES), children of single mothers would have relatively worse access to care than children in two-parent families, but there would be no access difference by family structure among children in higher SES families. DATA SOURCES The National Health Interview Surveys of 1993-95, including 63,054 children. STUDY DESIGN Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between the childs family structure (single-mother or two-parent family) and three measures of health care access and utilization: having no physician visits in the past year, having no usual source of health care, and having unmet health care needs. To examine how these relationships varied at different levels of SES, the models were stratified on maternal education level as the SES variable. The stratified models adjusted for maternal employment, childs health status, race and ethnicity, and childs age. Models were fit to examine the additional effects of health insurance coverage on the relationships between family structure, access to care, and SES. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Children of single mothers, compared with children living with two parents, were as likely to have had no physician visit in the past year; were slightly more likely to have no usual source of health care; and were more likely to have an unmet health care need. These relationships differed by mothers education. As expected, children of single mothers had similar access to care as children in two-parent families at high levels of maternal education, for the access measures of no physician visits in the past year and no usual source of care. However, at low levels of maternal education, children of single mothers appeared to have better access to care than children in two-parent families. Once health insurance was added to adjusted models, there was no significant socioeconomic variation in the relationships between family structure and physician visits or usual source of care, and there were no significant disparities by family structure at the highest levels of maternal education. There were no family structure differences in unmet needs at low maternal education, whereas children of single mothers had more unmet needs at high levels of maternal education, even after adjustment for insurance coverage. CONCLUSIONS At high levels of maternal education, family structure did not influence physician visits or having a usual source of care, as expected. However, at low levels of maternal education, single mothers appeared to be better at accessing care for their children. Health insurance coverage explained some of the access differences by family structure. Medicaid is important for children of single mothers, but children in two-parent families whose mothers are less educated do not always have access to that resource. Public health insurance coverage is critical to ensure adequate health care access and utilization among children of less educated mothers, regardless of family structure.

Passenger distractions among adolescent drivers

PROBLEM Adolescents who drive with peers are known to have a higher risk of crashes. While passengers may distract drivers, little is known about the circumstances of these distractions among teen drivers. METHOD This study used survey data on driving among 2,144 California high school seniors to examine distractions caused by passengers. RESULTS Overall, 38.4% of youths who drove reported having been distracted by a passenger. Distractions were more commonly reported among girls and students attending moderate- to high-income schools. Talking or yelling was the most commonly reported type of distraction. About 7.5% of distractions reported were deliberate, such as hitting or tickling the driver or attempting to use the vehicles controls. Driving after alcohol use and having had a crash as a driver were both significant predictors of reporting passenger-related distraction. CONCLUSION Adolescents often experience distractions related to passengers, and in some cases these distractions are intentional. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY These results provide information about teenage drivers who are distracted by passenger behaviors. In some cases, passengers attempted to use vehicle controls; however, it seems unlikely that this behavior is common enough to warrant redesign of controls to make them less accessible to passengers.

Socioeconomic Status and Breast Cancer Mortality, 1989 through 1993: An Analysis of Education Data from Death Certificates

OBJECTIVES This study examined whether more highly educated women were at greater risk of dying of breast cancer during 1989 through 1993. METHODS Breast cancer mortality rates were calculated through death certificates and Current Population Survey data. RESULTS Breast cancer mortality rates were highest among women with 12 and with 16 or more years of education. Non-Hispanic Black women had the highest mortality rates and Asian women the lowest. Positive relationships between mortality and education were found for Hispanic women as well as non-Hispanic Black and Asian women. CONCLUSIONS The previously seen positive relationship between breast cancer mortality and education was found among US women of color but not non-Hispanic White women.

The Role of Socioeconomic Factors in Black–White Disparities in Preterm Birth

OBJECTIVES We investigated the role of socioeconomic factors in Black-White disparities in preterm birth (PTB). METHODS We used the population-based California Maternal and Infant Health Assessment survey and birth certificate data on 10 400 US-born Black and White California residents who gave birth during 2003 to 2010 to examine rates and relative likelihoods of PTB among Black versus White women, with adjustment for multiple socioeconomic factors and covariables. RESULTS Greater socioeconomic advantage was generally associated with lower PTB rates among White but not Black women. There were no significant Black-White disparities within the most socioeconomically disadvantaged subgroups; Black-White disparities were seen only within more advantaged subgroups. CONCLUSIONS Socioeconomic factors play an important but complex role in PTB disparities. The absence of Black-White disparities in PTB within certain socioeconomic subgroups, alongside substantial disparities within others, suggests that social factors moderate the disparity. Further research should explore social factors suggested by the literature-including life course socioeconomic experiences and racism-related stress, and the biological pathways through which they operate-as potential contributors to PTB among Black and White women with different levels of social advantage.

Bridging Between Two Standards for Collecting Information on Race and Ethnicity: An Application to Census 2000 and Vital Rates

Objectives. The 2000 Census, which provides denominators used in calculating vital statistics and other rates, allowed multiple-race responses. Many other data systems that provide numerators used in calculating rates collect only single-race data. Bridging is needed to make the numerators and denominators comparable. This report describes and evaluates the method used by the National Center for Health Statistics to bridge multiple-race responses obtained from Census 2000 to single-race categories, creating single-race population estimates that are available to the public. Methods. The authors fitted logistic regression models to multiple-race data from the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) for 1997–2000. These fitted models, and two bridging methods previously suggested by the Office of Management and Budget, were applied to the public-use Census Modified Race Data Summary file to create single-race population estimates for the U.S. The authors also compared death rates for single-race groups calculated using these three approaches. Results. Parameter estimates differed between the NHIS models for the multiple-race groups. For example, as the percentage of multiple-race respondents in a county increased, the likelihood of stating black as a primary race increased among black/white respondents but decreased among American Indian or Alaska Native/black respondents. The inclusion of county-level contextual variables in the regression models as well as the underlying demographic differences across states led to variation in allocation percentages; for example, the allocation of black/white respondents to single-race white ranged from nearly zero to more than 50% across states. Death rates calculated using bridging via the NHIS models were similar to those calculated using other methods, except for the American Indian/Alaska Native group, which included a large proportion of multiple-race reporters. Conclusion. Many data systems do not currently allow multiple-race reporting. When such data systems are used with Census counts to produce race-specific rates, bridging methods that incorporate geographic and demographic factors may lead to better rates than methods that do not consider such factors.

The Influence of Proximity of Prenatal Services on Small-for-Gestational-Age Birth

Some studies suggest that prenatal services may decrease the risk of poor fetal growth for full-term infants, but have not examined the influence of the availability of community health and social services. The availability of prenatal services may have a stronger effect among women already at high risk of a small-for-gestational-age (SGA) birth. Singleton full-term (≥37 weeks gestation) California births for 1997–98 (n = 744,736) were geocoded to maternal Census tract of residence. Women were placed into one of three demographic risk groups utilizing combinations of maternal age, marital status, parity, and education. SGA was defined as birthweight less than the 10th percentile for gestational age. Locations of WIC sites, prenatal care providers, and perinatal outreach programs were geocoded. Multilevel logistic regression was used to model the influence of community health care services on SGA, adjusting for additional maternal and community factors. There was no association between SGA and community services available for either high- or low-risk women, in either unadjusted or adjusted models. The addition of maternal prenatal care utilization to models did not change the results. Maternal residence near prenatal services was not associated with SGA, regardless of demographic risk; other community factors may warrant consideration.

Middle school dropout? Enrollment trends in the California 4-H Youth Development Program

There is a widespread belief that youth drop out of youth development programs during the middle school years. Alternative explanations for the smaller number of adolescent program participants have yet to be explored. We examine age trends in program enrollment using data from over 221,000 youth enrolled in the California 4-H Youth Development Program from 1992 to 2002. We include sex, race/ethnicity, rural/urban residence, and project participation as predictors of dropout. Our results indicate that the peak in enrollment in early adolescence that is observable from annual enrollment data can be accounted for by stable and high enrollment turnover before age 11, followed by increased program dropout and fewer new enrollments. These findings have implications for explanations of youth program participation and for youth development program enrollment strategies, both for the 4-H Youth Development program and for youth programs in general.

Multiple-Race Mortality Data for California, 2000-2001

Objectives. To examine mortality rates and quality of race reporting for multiple-race individuals in California using the new multiple-race data available on the death certificate. Methods. Death data were drawn from California vital statistics for 2000 and 2001. Denominator data were drawn from the 2000 census Modified Race Data Summary File. The authors calculated mortality rates and relative standard errors for multiple-race individuals as a whole and by county, and for the three largest reported multiple-race groups (African American and white, American Indian/Alaska Native and white, and Asian and white). Results. Decedents reported to be of more than one race were disproportionately young, Hispanic, male, and never-married. Age-adjusted mortality rates for multiple-race groups were approximately one-sixth as high as rates for single-race individuals. There was substantial variability in rates for multiple-race decedents according to county of residence. Conclusions. Mortality rates for multiple-race people were implausibly low, and death certificates for multiple-race individuals were geographically clustered. Race reporting on death certificates will need to be improved before accurate death rates can be calculated for those of multiple races.

Social disparities in dietary habits among women: Geographic Research on Wellbeing (GROW) Study.

OBJECTIVE Relationships among race/ethnicity, individual socio-economic status (SES), neighbourhood SES and acculturation are complex. We sought to answer whether: (i) race/ethnicity, individual SES and neighbourhood SES have independent effects on womens fruit and vegetable consumption (FVC); (ii) SES modifies the effects of race/ethnicity on FVC; and (iii) nativity modifies the effect of Latina ethnicity on FVC. DESIGN Cross-sectional surveys from the population-based Geographic Research on Wellbeing (GROW) Study were linked with census-tract level data. FVC was indicated by (i) consuming fruits and vegetables less often than daily (LOWFV) and (ii) not having fruits and vegetables in the home very often. Other variables included age, marital status, race/ethnicity, country of birth, educational attainment, family income and longitudinal neighbourhood poverty (based on latent class growth models). Weighted logistic regression models accounting for the complex sample design were constructed. SETTING California, USA, 2012-2013. SUBJECTS Women (n 2669). RESULTS In adjusted models, race/ethnicity, education and income were independently associated with FVC, but not neighbourhood poverty. Women of colour, high-school graduates and women with incomes at 301-400 % of the federal poverty level were at higher odds of LOWFV compared with non-Hispanic Whites, college graduates and those with incomes >400 % of the federal poverty level. Little evidence for interactions between race/ethnicity and individual or neighbourhood SES was found; similar patterns were observed for immigrant and US-born Latinas. CONCLUSIONS Addressing the dietary needs of lower-SES communities requires multilevel interventions that simultaneously provide culturally tailored nutrition education and address the physical and economic accessibility of culturally acceptable fruits and vegetables.