Katherine L. Plant

The explanatory power of Schema Theory: theoretical foundations and future applications in ergonomics

Schema Theory is intuitively appealing although it has not always received positive press; critics of the approach argue that the concept is too ambiguous and vague and there are inherent difficulties associated with measuring schemata. As such, the term schema can be met with scepticism and wariness. The purpose of this paper is to address the criticisms that have been levelled at Schema Theory by demonstrating how Schema Theory has been utilised in Ergonomics research, particularly in the key areas of situation awareness, naturalistic decision making and error. The future of Schema Theory is also discussed in light of its potential roles as a unifying theory in Ergonomics and in contributing to our understanding of distributed cognition. We conclude that Schema Theory has made a positive contribution to Ergonomics and with continued refinement of methods to infer and represent schemata it is likely that this trend will continue. Practitioner Summary: This paper reviews the contribution that Schema Theory has made to Ergonomics research. The criticisms of the theory are addressed using examples from the areas of situation awareness, decision making and error.

What is on your mind? Using the perceptual cycle model and critical decision method to understand the decision-making process in the cockpit

Aeronautical decision-making is complex as there is not always a clear coupling between the decision made and decision outcome. As such, there is a call for process-orientated decision research in order to understand why a decision made sense at the time it was made. Schema theory explains how we interact with the world using stored mental representations and forms an integral part of the perceptual cycle model (PCM); proposed here as a way to understand the decision-making process. This paper qualitatively analyses data from the critical decision method (CDM) based on the principles of the PCM. It is demonstrated that the approach can be used to understand a decision-making process and highlights how influential schemata can be at informing decision-making. The reliability of this approach is established, the general applicability is discussed and directions for future work are considered. Practitioner Summary: This paper introduces the PCM, and the associated schema theory, as a framework to structure and explain data collected from the CDM. The reliability of both the method and coding scheme is addressed.

To twist, roll, stroke or poke? A study of input devices for menu navigation in the cockpit.

Modern interfaces within the aircraft cockpit integrate many flight management system (FMS) functions into a single system. The success of a users interaction with an interface depends upon the optimisation between the input device, tasks and environment within which the system is used. In this study, four input devices were evaluated using a range of Human Factors methods, in order to assess aspects of usability including task interaction times, error rates, workload, subjective usability and physical discomfort. The performance of the four input devices was compared using a holistic approach and the findings showed that no single input device produced consistently high performance scores across all of the variables evaluated. The touch screen produced the highest number of ‘best’ scores; however, discomfort ratings for this device were high, suggesting that it is not an ideal solution as both physical and cognitive aspects of performance must be accounted for in design. Practitioner summary: This study evaluated four input devices for control of a screen-based flight management system. A holistic approach was used to evaluate both cognitive and physical performance. Performance varied across the dependent variables and between the devices; however, the touch screen produced the largest number of ‘best’ scores.

The process of processing: exploring the validity of Neisser's perceptual cycle model with accounts from critical decision-making in the cockpit

The perceptual cycle model (PCM) has been widely applied in ergonomics research in domains including road, rail and aviation. The PCM assumes that information processing occurs in a cyclical manner drawing on top-down and bottom-up influences to produce perceptual exploration and actions. However, the validity of the model has not been addressed. This paper explores the construct validity of the PCM in the context of aeronautical decision-making. The critical decision method was used to interview 20 helicopter pilots about critical decision-making. The data were qualitatively analysed using an established coding scheme, and composite PCMs for incident phases were constructed. It was found that the PCM provided a mutually exclusive and exhaustive classification of the information-processing cycles for dealing with critical incidents. However, a counter-cycle was also discovered which has been attributed to skill-based behaviour, characteristic of experts. The practical applications and future research questions are discussed. Practitioner Summary: This paper explores whether information processing, when dealing with critical incidents, occurs in the manner anticipated by the perceptual cycle model. In addition to the traditional processing cycle, a reciprocal counter-cycle was found. This research can be utilised by those who use the model as an accident analysis framework.

Distributed cognition in Search and Rescue: loosely coupled tasks and tightly coupled roles

Abstract The perceptual cycle model (PCM) underpins much Ergonomics research, particularly in a team context, for example in its theoretical underpinning of distributed situation awareness. Despite this, the PCM framework it has not been explicitly applied to explore team processes, which is surprising given the prevalence of teamwork in safety critical systems. This paper explores team processes in the context of search and rescue (SAR) by applying the PCM and an association classification scheme with a network analysis approach utilising the event analysis of systemic teamwork (EAST) method. Data were collected via observations and communication recordings during training flights with SAR crews and were amalgamated into a representative case study. The analysis demonstrates how the SAR team function within a distributed perceptual cycle whereby the actions of one team member become world information for another team member. Advancements to the EAST method are proposed and the implications of the research are discussed. Practitioner Summary: This paper explores the perceptual cycle interactions of SAR crews using a novel EAST approach. The analysis demonstrates how the crew function as a distributed cognitive unit and applications in terms of training and design are discussed.

Extending helicopter operations to meet future integrated transportation needs

Helicopters have the potential to be an integral part of the future transport system. They offer a means of rapid transit in an overly populated transport environment. However, one of the biggest limitations on rotary wing flight is their inability to fly in degraded visual conditions in the critical phases of approach and landing. This paper presents a study that developed and evaluated a Head up Display (HUD) to assist rotary wing pilots by extending landing to degraded visual conditions. The HUD was developed with the assistance of the Cognitive Work Analysis method as an approach for analysing the cognitive work of landing the helicopter. The HUD was tested in a fixed based flight simulator with qualified helicopter pilots. A qualitative analysis to assess situation awareness and workload found that the HUD enabled safe landing in degraded conditions whilst simultaneously enhancing situation awareness and reducing workload. Continued development in this area has the potential to extend the operational capability of helicopters in the future.

The development of the Schema World Action Research Method (SWARM) for the elicitation of perceptual cycle data

ABSTRACT The Perceptual Cycle Model (PCM) has been widely applied to understanding processes such as decision-making and situation awareness as it provides a distributed approach, acknowledging the role of both internally held mental schemata and external environmental information in shaping these processes. There are, however, no associated methods with this model and therefore researchers have had to be creative with other methods in order to infer perceptual cycle processing. This paper presents the Schema-World-Action Research Method (SWARM) in which cognitive prompts for eliciting perceptual cycle information have been developed, initially for the aviation domain. Application of the method is exemplified through a case study of an aviation critical incident. The results demonstrate high theoretical validity with the PCM and a test–retest reliability assessment demonstrated high reliability when the method was applied on two separate occasions. Future research endeavours are acknowledged in which the method is expanded across domains.

A study of input devices for menu navigation in the cockpit

Modern interfaces within the aircraft cockpit integrate a large number of Flight Management System functions into a single interactive system. In this study, four potential input device technologies were evaluated against a range of Human Factor methods, to assess aspects of usability. This paper presents the findings from the task times, error rates, workload, subjective usability and physical comfort data. The findings show that a touch screen interface produced the shortest task times; however discomfort ratings for this device were high. The results highlight the need for a thorough understanding of the task environment in order to support decisions for novel interaction styles in the cockpit.

Where are we on driver distraction? Methods, approaches and recommendations

ABSTRACT Research within the road transport domain is progressively recognising the importance of taking a systems view of accident analysis. This signals a movement away from the more traditional approaches that aim to determine cause–effect relationships and attribute blame to the end-user. The multiple accidents associated with distracted driving have typically sought to establish the role of the driver and attribute responsibility to the individual. This paper will look at the approach that has been used to study distracted driving, the methods employed to study it and the recommendations they have provided to practise. The role of rapidly developing technology is discussed as more sources of distraction are presented to the driver. The limitations of the current approach lead to the proposition of a systems approach to driver distraction that aligns with the study of safety in other domains. This paper provides a novel overview of the variety of methodologies used to study distracted driving and how they may impact on the resulting countermeasures. The suggestion of a research–practice gap within the road transport domain is explored. The benefits of systems-based approaches, and their place in advancing driver distraction research for the development of future recommendations, are presented.

Use of highways in the sky and a virtual pad for landing head up display symbology to enable improved helicopter pilots situation awareness and workload in degraded visual conditions

Abstract Flight within degraded visual conditions is a great challenge to pilots of rotary-wing craft. Environmental cues typically used to guide interpretation of speed, location and approach can become obscured, forcing the pilots to rely on data available from in-cockpit instrumentation. To ease the task of flight during degraded visual conditions, pilots require easy access to flight critical information. The current study examined the effect of ‘Highways in the Sky’ symbology and a conformal virtual pad for landing presented using a Head Up Display (HUD) on pilots’ workload and situation awareness for both clear and degraded conditions across a series of simulated rotary-wing approach and landings. Results suggest that access to the HUD lead to significant improvements to pilots’ situation awareness, especially within degraded visual conditions. Importantly, access to the HUD facilitated pilot awareness in all conditions. Results are discussed in terms of future HUD development. Practitioner Summary: This paper explores the use of a novel Heads Up Display, to facilitate rotary-wing pilots’ situation awareness and workload for simulated flights in both clear and degraded visual conditions. Results suggest that access to HUD facilitated pilots’ situation awareness, especially when flying in degraded conditions.