Kathleen C. Gunthert

The role of neuroticism in daily stress and coping.

The authors examined the influence of neuroticism (N) on the occurrence of different types of daily events, primary and secondary appraisals of those events, use of specific coping strategies, and end-of-day negative mood. College students completed questionnaires at the end of every day for 14 consecutive days. When reporting their most stressful event of each day, high-N individuals, compared with low-N individuals, reported more interpersonal stressors and had more negative primary and secondary appraisals and reacted with more distress in response to increasingly negative primary and secondary appraisals. Compared with low-N individuals, high-N individuals used less-adaptive coping strategies (e.g., hostile reaction) and reacted with more distress in response to some types of coping strategies. The appraisal findings, in particular, help to explain the chronic negative affectivity associated with neuroticism.

Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) and anxiety reactivity in daily life: a daily process approach to gene-environment interaction.

Objective: To test whether individuals with at least one copy of the short (S) or long (L)G allele of the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) exhibit greater increases in anxiety, compared with LALA individuals, under periods of high daily stress. Although this common polymorphism in the serotonin transporter gene has been identified as a vulnerability factor for anxiety, findings in the literature are mixed. Discrepant findings could be explained by recent research showing that 5-HTTLPR is functionally triallelic (LA versus LG or S), rather than biallelic (L versus S). Mixed findings could also result from a lack of attention to diathesis-stress models, whereby genetic vulnerability is considered latent until activated by stress (gene-environment interplay). Based on this model, we argue that genotype differences in anxiety should be stronger in the presence of stress. Methods: A total of 350 college students recorded their daily stressors and mood for two 30-day periods, separated by 1 year. Results: Across both years, diathesis-stress patterns were observed for reports of anxious mood as a function of 5-HTTLPR. Individuals with at least one copy of the S or LG allele at 5-HTTLPR experienced elevated anxious mood on days with more intense stressors, as compared with those who were LA homozygotes. Genotype differences in anxiety were less apparent on low stress days. No consistent allelic association of 5-HTTLPR was observed with any other mood states, trait anxiety, or neuroticism. Conclusion: Our findings highlight the potential value of focusing on genetic vulnerability in the context of everyday environmental triggers. 5-HTTLPR = serotonin transporter gene promoter polymorphism; 5-HTT = serotonin transporter protein; fMRI = functional magnetic resonance imaging; STAI = State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

Biases in Affective Forecasting and Recall in Individuals With Depression and Anxiety Symptoms

The authors used experience sampling to investigate biases in affective forecasting and recall in individuals with varying levels of depression and anxiety symptoms. Participants who were higher in depression symptoms demonstrated stronger (more pessimistic) negative mood prediction biases, marginally stronger negative mood recall biases, and weaker (less optimistic) positive mood prediction and recall biases. Participants who were higher in anxiety symptoms demonstrated stronger negative mood prediction biases, but positive mood prediction biases that were on par with those who were lower in anxiety. Anxiety symptoms were not associated with mood recall biases. Neither depression symptoms nor anxiety symptoms were associated with bias in event prediction. Their findings fit well with the tripartite model of depression and anxiety. Results are also consistent with the conceptualization of anxiety as a “forward-looking” disorder, and with theories that emphasize the importance of pessimism and general negative information processing in depressive functioning.

Depression and Next-day Spillover of Negative Mood and Depressive Cognitions Following Interpersonal Stress

We hypothesized that individuals high in depression would experience a greater increase in depressive symptoms following daily interpersonal stress, as compared with their symptoms following noninterpersonal stress. Forty-six adult outpatients completed seven consecutive daily assessments of stressful events, appraisals of those events, depressive cognitions, and negative affect at the beginning of treatment. Although there were no same-day differences in reactions to interpersonal and noninterpersonal stressors, there was significant “spillover” of negative thoughts and affect following interpersonal stressors for those high in depression. In other words, for those high in depression, negative thoughts and affect increased to a greater degree on days following an interpersonal stressor, as compared to days following a noninterpersonal stressor. These findings suggest that delayed recovery from daily interpersonal stress might contribute to the maintenance of depressive symptoms.

The Influence of Dysphoria on Reactivity to Naturalistic Fluctuations in Anger

We used an experience sampling methodology to explore the relationship between current symptoms of dysphoria and momentary mood fluctuations following everyday experiences of anger. Using PDA devices, participants rated their mood, ruminative cognitions, feelings of dependency, and stressful events 4 times per day for 1 week. We hypothesized and found that those higher in dysphoria would demonstrate a stronger link between anger and depressed mood than those who were lower in dysphoria. Those participants who reported higher initial dysphoria indicated more anger over the course of the week, a stronger within-person association between anger and depressed mood, and a slower recovery from anger experiences. Multilevel moderated mediation analyses indicated that the link between anger and depressed mood for those high in dysphoria is largely explained by a stronger carryover of anger from one assessment to the next and partially explained by greater increases in ruminative cognitions and feelings of dependency. The change in depressed mood appears to occur with increases in anger, specifically, and not other negative mood states. Our results extend previous research on the anger-depression relationship by investigating the short-term relationships between anger and depressed mood among those with varying levels of dysphoria.

Moderating effects of sociotropy and autonomy on affective and self-esteem reactivity to daily stressors

We conducted a 10-day diary study that assessed daily stressors and end-of-day affect and self-esteem. We predicted that sociotropy would be associated with stronger sadness and self-esteem reactivity to daily interpersonal, but not achievement events, and that autonomy would be associated with the same pattern for daily achievement, but not interpersonal events. For the sample as whole, both daily interpersonal and achievement stressors were related to increased sadness and decreased self-esteem. As expected, the relationships involving interpersonal stressors were stronger for those high on sociotropy. However, the negative relationship between achievement stressors and self-esteem was also stronger for those high on sociotropy. Autonomy was associated with weaker self-esteem reactivity to interpersonal stressors. Our results are consistent with previous research on major life events, suggesting that sociotropy functions as a nonspecific vulnerability factor, and that autonomy’s role is unclear. Our results also suggest the heuristic value of a daily diary design to study the mechanisms underlying vulnerability factors’ role in the development and maintenance of depression.

Appearance Investment and Everyday Interpersonal Functioning: An Experience Sampling Study

Several studies have shown that body satisfaction affects interpersonal functioning. However, few have studied the specific interpersonal correlates of another important body image dimension, appearance investment—that is, the importance a woman places on appearance. We used an experience sampling design with PDA (personal digital assistant) devices to assess how 92 college womens appearance investment is related to perceptions of everyday social interactions and to investigate the association of these perceptions with mood and self-esteem. For 1 week, participants completed electronic diaries of their mood, self-esteem, and perceptions of one-on-one interactions. High appearance investment was associated with a stronger relationship between perceived communion of the interaction and negative mood and self-esteem. Notably, highly appearance-invested women did not report differences in average momentary levels of perceived communion or agency in interactions, negative mood, or self-esteem when compared to women with lower appearance investment. In contrast, women with low body satisfaction reported lower average perceptions of communion and self-esteem as well as higher average negative mood compared to women with higher body satisfaction, but no relationships among perceptions and self-esteem and mood were found. Thus, self-esteem and negative mood in women high in appearance investment might be contingent on perceptions of communion in interactions, even though they appear to have average levels of mood and self-esteem in general. This mood and self-esteem contingency could predispose appearance-invested women to psychological distress or eating pathology.

Sudden gains versus gradual gains in a psychotherapy training clinic

Sudden gains are abrupt and substantial improvements in symptoms. This study used the Outcome Questionnaire-45 (OQ-45; Lambert et al., 1996) to characterize sudden gains occurring in a cognitive-behavioral therapy training clinic. Also, gradual gainers were identified and used as a comparison group. Sudden gains were identified in 23% of patients and in 29% of those who entered treatment in the clinical range on the OQ, within the range of prevalence established by previous sudden gain studies in the context of randomized controlled trials (RCTs). As in earlier research, sudden gains tended to occur early in therapy. However, sudden gains were more likely to be reversed than in RCTs. Gradual gains occurred for 54% of nonsudden gainers; they were of similar magnitude to sudden gains but occurred later in therapy. Sudden gainers showed significantly better outcomes at the end of treatment than did gradual gainers. Sudden gains have clear prognostic significance, but more research is needed to determine why they may be more transient in naturalistic studies or studies involving less experienced therapists than they are in RCTs.

Preliminary Evidence that Anxiety is Associated with Accelerated Response in Cognitive Therapy for Depression

We conducted two studies that assessed the role of initial anxiety in rate of change (depression reduction) in cognitive therapy for major depression. In both studies, depression and anxiety were assessed at intake, and depression was assessed at every treatment session. Longitudinal growth modeling was used to predict rate of change in treatment from sessions 1–12 controlling for intake depression, with intake anxiety as a moderator of change. In Study 1, high initial anxiety was associated with a faster rate of depression reduction across the course of cognitive therapy, whereas in Study 2, high initial anxiety was associated with a faster rate of depression reduction in the early sessions of treatment. The influence of intake depression on rate of change was controlled, and therefore the results are likely not due to greater symptom severity or distress among those high in anxiety. BAI subscale analyses suggest that the results are likely due to the physiological arousal characteristic of anxiety. These results suggest a potentially beneficial role for initial anxiety in cognitive therapy for depression.

Depression, Neuroticism, and Mood-Regulation Expectancies for Engagement and Disengagement Coping Among Cigarette Smokers

Relapse to cigarette smoking after a quit attempt is often the result of inadequate coping. In a study of 72 cigarette smokers, relationships between neuroticism, depressive symptoms, and the use of engagement and disengagement coping strategies were explored, along with expectancies for the effectiveness of these different types of coping for regulating affect. Depression and neuroticism showed significant positive relationships with disengagement coping strategies (such as withdrawing from the situation) and negative relationships with engagement strategies (such as approaching those involved). In addition, mood-regulation expectancies for coping strategies were closely associated with their projected use. These findings may be helpful in tailoring coping skills training components of smoking cessation treatments.