Kathleen M. Armour

The educational benefits claimed for physical education and school sport : an academic review.

This academic review critically examines the theoretical and empirical bases of claims made for the educational benefits of physical education and school sport (PESS). An historical overview of the development of PESS points to the origins of claims made in four broad domains: physical, social, affective and cognitive. Analysis of the evidence suggests that PESS has the potential to make contributions to young people’s development in each of these domains. Unsurprisingly, perhaps, there is suggestive evidence of a distinctive role for PESS in the acquisition and development of children’s movement skills and physical competence. It can be argued that these are necessary, if not deterministic conditions of engagement in lifelong physical activity. In the social domain, there is sufficient evidence to support claims of positive benefits for young people. Importantly, benefits are mediated by environmental and contextual factors such as leadership, the involvement of young people in decision‐making, an emphasis on social relationships, and an explicit focus on learning processes. In the affective domain, too, engagement in physical activity has been positively associated with numerous dimensions of psychological and emotional development, yet the mechanisms through which these benefits occur are less clear. Likewise, the mechanisms by which PESS might contribute to cognitive and academic developments are barely understood. There is, however, some persuasive evidence to suggest that physical activity can improve children’s concentration and arousal, which might indirectly benefit academic performance. In can be concluded that many of the educational benefits claimed for PESS are highly dependent on contextual and pedagogic variables, which leads us to question any simple equations of participation and beneficial outcomes for young people. In the final section, therefore, the review raises questions about whether PESS should be held accountable for claims made for educational benefits, and about the implications of accountability.

Locating the coaching process in practice: models ‘for’ and ‘of’ coaching

Background: Despite an increasing recognition of the existence of a process of coaching, and a resulting increase in research activity, there remains a lack of a clear conceptual base for sports coaching. This situation has left coaching without a clear set of concepts and principles that reflect coaching practice. Purpose: The aim of this paper is to critically examine current conceptualisations of the coaching process, principally in terms of how they have been generated and their contribution to coaching knowledge. By exploring models for (idealistic representations) and of (empirically based) the coaching process, this paper examines the models nature and conceptual underpinnings, in an attempt to position them within a broader framework of understanding coaching and the coaching process. Conclusions: The analysis suggests that the current set of models result in a representation of the coaching process that is often reduced in complexity and scale, and the essential social and cultural elements of the process are often underplayed. This is particularly illustrated through examining in-situ models of coaching practice, which identify coaching as a complex, interrelated and inter-dependent process that is firmly embedded within specific social and cultural contexts. Contribution of Research: Because of the inherent complexity of the coaching process, it is argued that the contextual purpose, particularities, and subjectivities of coaching must be examined before guidelines of recommended practice can be made.

Understanding the Coaching Process: A Framework for Social Analysis

Despite the recent increase of research into coaching, the essential social and cultural nature of the process has received little attention. The purpose of this paper is to suggest a framework for undertaking a social analysis of coaching. Specifically, the case is made for analyzing coaching using three interrelated concepts-role, interaction, and power-in order to critically interrogate coaching practice. We argue that, while not exhaustive, such an analysis can reveal the importance of key, but often underplayed, components of the coaching process, including social and cultural contexts, personal experiences, personal philosophies, professional practice, and the ways in which they are interconnected. The paper is thus grounded in the belief that recognizing and understanding the social sphere of the coaching process is a necessary step toward understanding coaching practice and using that understanding to support coaches more effectively.

Sport Sciences and the Promise of Phenomenology: Philosophy, Method, and Insight.

This paper examines the ways in which phenomenology might make a more significant contribution to knowledge and undentanding within the broad field or spon-related research. The discussion is organized into Four sections. First, an overview of the philosophical roots of phenomenology and its main concepts provides a contextual background. This highlights both the centrality of the key contributions of Husserl and Heidegger and their essential differences. Second, it is argued that recognition of such differences raise important methodological issues that will influence research intentions and outcomes. Third. from an analysis of existing phenomenological research in the sport sciences, it is concluded that there are few examples that fully merit the phenomenological descriptor. Rather, it is argued that where the terms qualitative and phenomenological are used interchangeably, the potential of phenomenology is not realized. In conclusion, the implications of striving to achieve the central phenomenological goals of providing insight and tools for reflection (Bain, 1995) are considered.

Re‐engaging disaffected youth through physical activity programmes

It is a cherished belief within physical education and sport communities that participation in sport/physical activity has the potential to offer young people a range of physical, psychological and social benefits. More recently in the UK, this belief has become prominent in government policies that, among other things, are seeking to re-engage disaffected young people in order to increase their life chances and minimise the impact of anti-social behaviours upon others. Yet, the link between physical activity interventions and developing pro-social behaviours is not straightforward, and there is a lack of credible research evidence to support many of the claims made for physical activity to or to inform decisions about effective intervention design. This paper reviews key literature, focusing particularly on disaffected young people and physical activity interventions in the school context, and identifies six key issues that, we would argue, warrant consideration when planning physical activity programmes to re-engage disaffected young people. In particular, it is argued that the unprecedented levels of public and private funding available for physical activity related programmes in the UK, and the high expectations placed upon them to deliver specific measurable outcomes, mean that the need for credible monitoring and evaluation is pressing.

Toward an Holistic Understanding of the Coaching Process

While it has been recognized that the coaching process is vulnerable to differing social pressures and constraints, the humanistic nature of the coaching process remains a little understood and under researched area. Consequently, the objective of this paper is to present a methodology that combines systematic observation and interpretive interview techniques to gain a thicker, deeper, and broader understanding of the instructional process within sport. Specifically, the multi-method framework presented herein concerns (a) identifying the instructional behaviors utilized by coaches within the practice environment, (b) generating an understanding of why coaches behave as they do within the practice environment, and (c) examining how their instructional strategies impact upon, and are understood by, their athletes in the coaching process. It is hoped that the triangulation of quantitative and qualitative methods suggested will make a significant contribution to the development of a greater understanding of the hehaviors, actions, and motivations of the coaching practitioner within sport.

Collaborative Professional Learning: from theory to practice

Abstract This article analyses continuing professional development (CPD) in the context of primary schools in England, and focuses particularly on the potential of collaborative professional learning (CPL) as a means of making CPD both relevant and specific. It draws upon a range of CPD and CPL literature to critically examine the key characteristics of ‘effective’ CPD and, within that framework, to analyse both the concept of CPL and its practical application. The area of practice used as an exemplar for this discussion is primary school physical education, an aspect of the curriculum that suffers from sparse initial teacher training and low levels of teacher confidence. Drawing on selected data from a 1–year research project in two case study schools, the evidence suggests that while it is clear that teachers would value further opportunities to engage in CPL, schools would need to radically alter their structures, processes and priorities to enable it to happen effectively

The role of physical activity/sport in tackling youth disaffection and anti-social behaviour

The purpose of this paper is to examine the existing evidence about the impact of sport/physical activity programmes on positive youth development in the context of education. The issue of youth disaffection is topical and a number of authors and policy makers have acknowledged that physical activity/sport may be an effective way of helping to address the problem. As a result, a number of initiatives aimed at re‐engaging disaffected or disadvantaged young people through physical activities have been developed and implemented in schools in the UK. Two such initiatives, the HSBC/Outward Bound project and Youth Sport Trust/BSkyB ‘Living For Sport’ programme, are discussed within this paper, and key findings from the monitoring and evaluation of each initiative are presented. Over a period of three years, more than 7000 pupils have been engaged in these programmes, and complete data sets have been collated for over 50% and 90% of Sky Living For Sport and HSBC/Outward Bound participants respectively. The findings suggest that both of these projects have had a positive impact on the behaviour and attendance of large numbers of pupils, and that engagement in lessons and relationships with both teachers and peers have improved and can be sustained. The findings also demonstrate, however, that impact is highly individualised and context‐specific in many cases, and that positive impact is more likely to be sustained when some or all of the following project features are in place: effective matching of pupil needs with the specific project objectives; locating project activities outside of the ‘normal’ school context; working closely with pupils to choose activities, set targets and review progress; establishing positive relationships between project leaders/supporters (mentors) and pupils; and giving pupils the opportunity to work with and for others.

The physical education profession and its professional responsibility … or … why ‘12 weeks paid holiday’ will never be enough

Background: This paper critically reviews the concept of ‘professional responsibility’ in physical education. The paper is rooted in the belief that the physical education profession has, by virtue of its expertise in young people and physical activity, the potential to deliver a broad range of desirable educational and health-related outcomes. Yet, if the physical education profession is just that – a profession – then its true potential lies in its ability to serve its ‘clients’; children and young people. In order to serve its clients effectively, therefore, each member of the profession has a responsibility to base its practices upon the best knowledge available at any given time. Key concepts: Physical education teachers as professionals are considered as learners – rather than as teachers. The development of this argument is traced through the work of John Dewey, Donald Schon, David Hargreaves and the recent national Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) in England. On being a profession: The nature of professions is then analysed and an holistic view of the physical education profession is suggested which places teachers at the core of a community of practice. Career-long professional development (CPD) is identified as a defining characteristic of all professions, yet it is argued that much of the CPD traditionally offered to physical education teachers is limited in both scope and challenge. Health and positive youth development: The problems resulting from ineffective and inappropriate PE-CPD are considered. Expectations on the PE profession are increasing, nationally and internationally, in two areas of public concern – health and positive youth development. It is argued, however, that the fractured nature of the wider profession means that PE teachers are poorly prepared to deliver what is expected of it in these two areas. Implications for the PE profession: The implications of a fractured profession are explored and it is argued that urgent changes are required to the ways in which teachers learn, teacher educators (from ITT to CPD) support professional learning, and researchers undertake, disseminate and are held accountable for their research. Conclusion: The extended profession needs to find ways to work together more effectively to support teachers who exist to serve the clients of this profession: children and young people. It is suggested that one way to start this process is to refocus teachers on themselves as career-long learners, and then to consider the implications for the work of the wider PE profession; including researchers.

Personal, Social and Moral Development through Team Games: Some Critical Questions

This article raises critical questions about the place of pupils’ personal, social andmoral development in team games. It is argued that clearer conceptual definitions and critical debate within the physical education (PE) profession are needed in order to determine the role of team games in promoting pupils’ personal, social and moral education. The complex inter-relationship between these aspects of pupils’ development is discussed and a case is made for using ‘ sociomoral’ education for the purpose of further analysis. Current ideology about how team games can enhance pupils’ socio-moral education is examined against the background of historical developments in PE in both state and private schools over the last 150 years. The need for empirical evidence to substantiate knowledge claims in this multi-dimensional area of the curriculum is highlighted and some suggestions made for research in this area.