Kathryn A. Jakes

Etowah Textile Remains and Cultural Context: A Model for Inference

Archaeological textiles are products of decision making by early peoples and represent efforts to manage environmental, economic, and human resources for a variety of purposes. Their study must incorporate rigor, but the conditions of survival have hampered investigative efforts in the past. Recent applications of instrumental analyses have yielded more precise information which must be used correctly in order to reconstruct with accuracy the cultural use of textile products in the past. A theoretical framework and model are proposed for inferring cultural context from archaeological textile remains. The model incorporates two types of attribute analyses and burial site information to infer behavior and function in the cultural processes of early people. A partially mineralized fabric from Mound C, Etowah (EMC #840) was used to test the models capabilities.

The Recovery and Drying of Textiles from a Deep Ocean Historic Shipwreck

Abstract A trunk full of waterlogged and degraded textiles recovered from the site of S.S. Central America, which sank off the coast of the Carolinas in 1857, provided the opportunity to conduct research in the identification and characterization of such materials as well as in the appropriate methods for their conservation. The plan included removal of each item from the trunk, immersion in demineralized water, assessment of each item, arrangement on fiberglass screens, and rapid freezing. Experiments conducted to study the effects of air drying, ethanol dehydration, critical-point drying, vacuum freeze drying, and slow drying in the frozen state revealed vacuum freeze drying to be the method most disruptive to fabric and fiber structure. Slow drying while in the frozen state resulted in fibers and fabrics with visible structure and few contaminating deposits on the surface.

Etowah Feather Remains from Burial 57: Identification and Context

Analysis of remains recovered from three locations in Burial 57, Etowah, yielded evidence of red and gold plumules and downy barbule feathers of the Anseriformes order, Anatidae family (swan, geese, ducks) which may have been dyed. Further examination revealed layers of red and gold feathers separated by dark brown areas composed of yarns. The fragile condition inhibited efforts to identify conclusively the relation of yarns and feathers. The results of analysis were compared to the ethnohistoric record and other archaeological data confirming feather-faced fabric usage by early populations in North America.

Radiocarbon Dates on Textile and Bark Samples from the Central Grave of the Adena Mound (33RO1), Chillicothe, Ohio

Abstract The Adena Mound (33RO1) is the type site of the Adena culture, yet there have been no radiocarbon dates to place it reliably within a temporal framework. Fortunately, the artifact collection, curated by the Ohio Historical Society, includes objects that are highly suitable for radiocarbon dating, including fragments of textiles and tree bark associated with the central burial. We selected a textile fragment and two bark fragments for radiocarbon dating. The textile exhibits alternate pair twine with very fine yarns probably composed of cellulose bast fibers. The bark is from a black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) tree. The results of the radiocarbon dating indicate that the Adena Mound was constructed between the end of the second century B.C. and the beginning of the first century A.D., placing it near the midpoint in the sequence of radiocarbon-dated Adena culture sites. This study demonstrates the value of museum collections for gleaning new data from curated materials.

Coloration and Fabric Structure of Selected Polychrome Textiles from the Seip Mound Group

Abstract Selected yellow and brown colored textiles from the Hopewellian Seip Mound group were examined visually and photographed. In some cases, the yarns are colorant saturated and the colored patterns are nearly identical on both sides of the textiles. In addition to the use of several colors, fringe and possibly leather are used as decorations. Particulate material shed from these fabrics, or small samples strategically removed based on the results of the forensic photography, were examined with optical microscopy, revealing that the fabrics are made of dyed rabbit hair and bast fibers. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) of a subset of the samples indicates that there is no significant difference in elemental composition between the different colors. However, the high carbon and copper content are signs of mineralization of the fibers. These textiles reflect multifaceted textile construction methods with elaborate decoration techniques as well as the use of complex dye technology.

CELLULOLYTIC BIODEGRADATION OF COTTON FIBERS FROM A DEEP-OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

Abstract Items of clothing recovered after 133 years of submersion at a deep-ocean shipwreck site provided a unique source of marine-degraded textiles. In this research, both dyed and undyed cotton samples taken from a mans waistcoat were studied by optical and scanning electron microscopy and by energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. The undyed fibers showed features typical of localized biodegradation, and two different forms of cellulolytic micro-organisms were observed. Black deposits, perhaps formed by sulfate-reducing bacteria, were observed on both the dyed and undyed samples. After treatment with a mixture of sodium hydroxide plus carbon disulfide, fibrillation and horizontal fragmentation of the dyed and undyed cotton fibers, respectively, were observed. In contrast, new cotton samples treated similarly with sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfide formed the “balloons” typical of fibers with intact primary walls. Tin was present only in the dyed sample. Its source is probably a mordant used in the dyeing process. It is likely that the tin aided in protecting the fabric from attack by cellulolytic micro-organisms.

Identification of anthraquinone dye colourants in red fibres from an Ohio Hopewell mound site by direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry

AbstractAmong prehistoric native groups of North America, the Ohio Hopewell was a particularly notable cultural manifestation that prevailed during the Middle Woodland Period (ca. 2100–1500 BP). The group is defined by the construction of elaborate burial mounds, evidence of ritual burning and cremation ceremonies, and a multitude of intricately decorated objects formed from materials obtained through extensive trade networks. While relatively few textile artefacts survive, those that have been preserved reflect a comprehensive knowledge of plant and animal fibre, dye, and pigment sources, and manipulation of those materials to create complex decorated fabric structures. The research reported herein is part of a programme to understand the materials used and the processes of colouration employed prehistorically. To investigate the sources of dye colourants, we applied direct analysis in real time – time-of-flight mass spectrometry (DART-MS) to both comparative materials and archaeological fibres from thre...

Sequencing Analytical Methods for Small Sample Dating and Dye Identification of Textile Fibers: Application to a Fragment from Seip Mound Group, Ohio

Examination of fibers from a colored fabric fragment from Seip Mound Group, Ohio, demonstrates the utility of sequencing analytical techniques: (1) minimally destructive pretreatment to remove humic acids followed by plasma-chemical oxidation, in preparation for accelerator mass spectrometric determination of radiocarbon age and (2) direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of the pretreatment solution, for the determination of red colorants. Pretreatment followed by plasma-chemical oxidation provided the opportunity to date 3 mg of fiber using just 200 mcg of carbon. Examination of the pretreatment solution by DART-MS confirmed the composition of anthraquinones consistent with those from bedstraw root (Galium sp.). The date determined (1,805 ± 35 B.P.) places the textile in the midrange of radiocarbon dates previously obtained for the Seip earthworks; identification of the dye plant shows that the Hopewell possessed a sophisticated knowledge of plants and their uses.

Direct analysis in real time-mass spectroscopy for identification of red dye colourants in Paracas Necropolis Textiles

Abstract The Paracas Necropolis on the south coast of Peru is renowned for the elaborate funerary bundles recovered from that dry sandy region. These bundles contained the remains of male leaders within the Paracas communities surrounded by multiple layers of plain cloth and garments with embroidered designs. The methods and materials used in dyeing the yarns used to embellish these ancient fabrics are still not well understood, and the research presented herein seeks to add to that body of knowledge. To investigate the sources of dye colourants in samples from Paracas Necropolis textiles, we applied direct analysis in real time–time-of-flight mass spectrometry (DART-MS). This new methodology has both advantages (analyses are rapid and require little or no sample preparation) and disadvantages (e.g. inability to identify intact carminic acid) compared to existing ones used in the analysis of dye colourants. Direct analysis in real time mass spectra were collected on chemical standards, botanical materials and comparative reference samples prepared with Relbunium roots and cochineal insects (Dactylopius sp.), and the results are compared to red fibres obtained from several different textiles within two different funerary bundles from the Museo Nacional de Arqueología Antropología e Historia in Lima, Peru. The results from the DART-MS analysis of these red fibres show that the compounds present are consistent with the presence of dye obtained from Relbunium species, and cochineal insects were not used to colour these fibres. Statement of significance DART-MS is an efficient and effective method to identify red colourant composition in small samples of fibres removed from archaeological textiles. Of significant note is the ability to differentiate isomers present in Relbunium and other anthraquinone dyes. Colourants in Relbunium are readily distinguished. Although a component of carminic acid from cochineal is less reliably positively identified by DART-MS, it is possible to use a simple extraction and ionization method to confirm or exclude the presence of carminic acid. Relbunium and cochineal are known to have been used in Paracas textiles. Not only does DART-MS aid in identification of colourants using small amounts of material and without significant sample preparation, the information can be used to distinguish fibres that were prepared differently thus indicating past knowledge of dyeing technology. The information can also aid in separating periods of artefact manufacture, and guide development of a conservation strategy. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Revealing Clues from Textile Particulate through Microscopy, Infrared Spectroscopy, and X-ray Microanalysis

Abstract Textiles found in prehistoric sites in eastern North America often are brittle fragments. Many appear brown or black in color due to degradation and staining; most display no evidence of color or pattern. These degraded fragments readily shed particulate matter. Although typically discarded, study of the particulate provides a wealth of information. Based on work with comparative materials, optical microscopy, infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray microanalysis have been shown to be useful in classifying fibers, providing evidence for dye and pigment coloration, characterizing the type of degradation incurred, and providing evidence for mineralization. From the study of textile particulate, inferences can be made concerning plant and animal use for fiber production; technology of fiber-processing and coloration; characteristics of the burial context; resource use and exchange; time and effort costs in collecting and processing raw materials; and the potential social structure of the community in which these products were manufactured and used. The results reported and inferences drawn serve as examples of the types of information that can be gleaned through the study of the seemingly inconsequential particulate.