Kathryn Dindia

Strategies for Maintaining and Repairing Marital Relationships

Although relationship research has concentrated on relational formation and termination processes, most of the time spent in long-term relationships is devoted to relational maintenance and/or repair. The present study examines the maintenance/repair strategies reported by fifty couples (n= 100 spouses). It attempts to discover the strategies and the ways in which their number and choice are related to marital satisfaction, participation in a marital enrichment programme, length of marriage and respondent gender. Forty-nine strategies were identified and clustered into twelve superordinate strategy types. Respondents most frequently reported use of prosocial, ceremonial, communication and togetherness strategy types. More strategies were reported in accomplishing maintenance than repair of the relationship. However, the same types of strategies were reported for both maintenance and repair with the exceptions of metacommunication and anti-ritual/spontaneity strategies. The number of strategies correlated negatively with length of marriage. Implications for future research include the need for comparative work among premarital, marital and divorced couples. In addition, the need to develop understanding of such strategies for use in marital enrichment programmes is discussed.

A Meta-Analytic Perspective on Sex Equity in the Classroom

This meta-analysis examines patterns of sex differences in teacher-initiated teacher–student interactions. While extensive research has examined factors that influence student evaluations of effective and ineffective teachers, this study examines whether teacher-initiated interactions with students, such as praising or blaming, vary as a function of student sex. After a careful examination of 127 empirical studies, 32 studies were retained for the meta-analysis. The studies were coded for positive, negative, and total interactions. The results suggest that teachers initiate more overall interactions and more negative interactions, but not more positive interactions, with male students than with female students.

Sex differences and similarities in communication

Contents: Preface. Part I: Framing Sex Differences and Similarities. K. Dindia, Men Are From North Dakota, Women Are From South Dakota. E. Aries, Gender Differences in Interaction: A Reexamination. P.H. Wright, Toward an Expanded Orientation to the Comparative Study of Womens and Mens Same-Sex Friendships. J.A. Hall, How Big Are Nonverbal Sex Differences? The Case of Smiling and Nonverbal Sensitivity. G.N. Powell, L.M. Graves, Gender and Leadership: Perceptions and Realities. M. Allen, K.S. Valde, Researching a Gendered World: The Intersection of Methodological and Ethical Concerns. Part II: Approaches to Sex Differences and Similarities. P.A. Anderson, The Evolution of Biological Sex Differences in Communication. B.R. Burleson, A.W. Kunkel, Revisiting the Different Cultures Thesis: An Assessment of Sex Differences and Similarities in Supportive Communication. A.H. Eagly, A.M. Koenig, Social Role Theory of Sex Differences and Similarities: Implication for Prosocial Behavior. M. Crawford, M.R. Kaufman, Sex Differences Versus Social Processes in the Construction of Gender. L. Di Mare, V.R. Waldron, Researching Gendered Communication in Japan and the United States: Current Limitations and Alternative Approaches. Part III: Sex Differences and Similarities in Communicative Behaviors. A. Mulac, The Gender-Linked Language Effect: Do Language Differences Really Make a Difference? L.K. Guerrero, S.M. Jones, R.R. Boburka, Sex Differences in Emotional Communication. J.K. Burgoon, J.P. Blair, D.B. Buller, P. Tilley, Sex Differences in Presenting and Detecting Deceptive Messages. A.E. Lindsey, W.R. Zakahi, Perceptions of Men and Women Departing From Conversational Sex-Role Stereotypes. P.J. Kalbfleisch, A.L. Herold, Sex, Power, and Communication. Part IV: Sex Differences and Similarities in Romantic Relationships. M.R. Trost, J.K. Alberts, How Men and Women Communicate Attraction: An Evolutionary View. P.A. Mongeau, M.C.M. Serewicz, M.L.M. Henningsen, K.L. Davis, Sex Differences in the Transition to a Heterosexual Romantic Relationship. D.J. Canary, J. Wahba, Do Women Work Harder Than Men at Maintaining Relationships? L.M. Sagrestano, C.L. Heavey, A. Christensen, Individual Differences Versus Social Structural Approaches to Explaining Demand-Withdraw and Social Influence Behaviors. J.T. Wood, Gender, Power, and Violence in Heterosexual Relationships. J.S. Hyde, Epilogue.

Gender-Preferential Language Use in Spouse and Stranger Interaction

Research on sex differences in the communication practices of men and women often ignores the contexts in which communication takes place. By comparing women and men as they interact with both strangers and spouses, the authors present a more nuanced view of gender differences in social interaction. The authors discuss gender-preferential language and present data on social interaction in same-sex, mixed-sex and marital dialogues. Results of a round-robin analysis of variance indicate that same-sex dyadic conversations, but not mixed-sex dyadic conversations, are marked by a strong display of stereotypical gender-preferential linguistic use. Husbands tend to adopt a female-preferential linguistic style when speaking to their wives.

An Investigation of Female/Male Verbal Behaviors in Same-Sex and Mixed-Sex Conversations.

This paper examines 11 variables commonly believed to discriminate between the verbal behavior of males and females. The analysis uses the Kraemer‐Jacklin (1979) statistic to isolate and test the effects of sex of subject, sex of partner, and their interaction while controlling for between partner correlation. Results indicate that women use more justifiers, intensifiers and agreement whereas men exhibit more vocalized pauses. Men also receive more vocalized pauses. The conversations of mixed‐sex dyads contained more overlaps and, marginally, more interruptions than conversations of same‐sex dyads. However, interruptions and overlaps were not performed more frequently by men (or women).

The function of holiday greetings in maintaining relationships

The purpose of this study was to examine the function of holiday greetings in maintaining relationships. Participants were asked to submit a holiday greeting they had received, their perception of why the holiday greeting was sent, whether the holiday greeting functioned to maintain the relationship, and whether and why they had sent a holiday greeting in return. The most frequent reason for sending holiday greetings was ‘because we have a relationship’ (the third most frequent reason was ‘because we have a special relationship’). The second most frequent reason for sending and receiving holiday greetings was to maintain the relation-ship (to keep in touch, to maintain contact, etc.). However, when asked whether holiday greetings function to maintain relationships, the results indicated that people do not perceive holiday greetings as functioning to maintain relationships. The degree to which holiday greeting cards were perceived as functioning to maintain relationships was affected by whether the relationship was intimate or noninti-mate, by the type of relationship (friendship, romantic relationship, kinship vs. colleague/co-worker), by the amount of time since the individuals had seen each other, and by whether the holiday greeting was personalized (contained a handwritten note or letter) or nonpersonalized. The degree to which holiday greeting cards were perceived as functioning to maintain relationships was not affected by whether the holiday greeting included a form letter that ‘caught up’ the recipient on the events of the past year. From the results, we speculated that holiday greeting cards are hygienic factors; their presence does not positively affect relational maintenance, but their absence may have a negative effect on relational maintenance.

Reframing the Cultural Differences between the East and the West

This study proposes that the fundamental cultural differences between the East and the West lie in a holistic-analytic worldview, and this new perspective can explain the cultural differences better than collectivism-individualism. To test the claim, this study developed a measurement for holism and its derivative, cognitive relativity. Then, it examined the degree of holism, cognitive relativity, and independent and interdependent self-construals with Korean and American college students. Results showed that (a) Koreans had a stronger holistic worldview than Americans, (b) Koreans maintained a higher degree of cognitive relativity than Americans, (c) Koreans and Americans did not differ in either independent or interdependent self-construals, and (d) the impact of holism was still strong after controlling for the effects of self-construals.

COUPLES AND OTHER STRANGERS Talk Time in Spouse-Stranger Interaction

Using talk-time measures of spouse and stranger interaction styles, this article tests the spillover, situationist, and dynamic interactionist models of communication. In groups of four, twenty couples came into our laboratory on three separate occasions. Each person spoke with every other person in the group and these conversational orders were randomized. This multivariate round-robin analysis of variance design allows us to examine actor, partner, and relationship effects through time; it compares married to stranger dyads; it allows a direct test of the effect of a number of individual difference variables; and it examines the relationship among the dependent variables at the same point in time and across time periods. The results indicate that a spillover model best represents the talk-time data. Biological sex appears to have no effect on speaking with either a spouse or a stranger, although self-assessment that one is masculine does. Few personality variables predict talk time although relationship dimensions, such as sharing and satisfaction, differentially predict talk time.

Sex equity in the classroom: Do female students lose the battle for teacher attention?

Contents: B.M. Gayle, Preface. Part I: Classroom Communication and Instructional Processes. R.W. Preiss, M. Allen, Meta-Analysis, Classroom Communication, and Instructional Processes. J.C. McCroskey, V.P. Richmond, L.L. McCroskey, The Role of Communication in Instruction: The First Three Decades. Part II: Educational Practices in the Classroom. C. Rich, B.M. Gayle, R.W. Preiss, Pedagogical Issues Underlying Classroom Learning Techniques. S.J. Berkowitz, Developing Critical Thinking Through Forensics and Communication Education: Assessing the Impact Through Meta-Analysis. E.J. Shapiro, J. Kerssen-Griep, B.M. Gayle, M. Allen, How Powerful is PowerPoint? Analyzing the Educational Effects of Desktop Presentational Programs in the Classroom. C.E. Timmerman, K.A. Kruepke, Comparisons of College Student Performance Across Computer-Assisted and Traditional Instruction Formats. R.W. Preiss, B.M. Gayle, M. Allen, Test Anxiety, Academic Self-Efficacy, and Study Skills: A Meta-Analytic Review. N.A. Burrell, C.S. Zirbel, M. Allen, Evaluating Peer Mediation Outcomes in Educational Settings: A Meta-Analytic Review. Part III: Classroom Interactions. J. Kerssen-Griep, B.M. Gayle, R.W. Preiss, Classroom Interaction and Educational Outcomes. P.L. Witt, L.R. Wheeless, M. Allen, The Relationship Between Teacher Immediacy and Student Learning: A Meta-Analysis. L. Bradford, E. Cooper, M. Allen, J. Stanley, D. Grimes, Race and the Classroom: Interaction and Image. S.M. Jones, K. Dindia, S. Tye, Sex Equity in the Classroom: Do Female Students Lose the Battle for Teacher Attention? J. Bourhis, M. Allen, I. Bauman, Communication Apprehension: Issues to Consider in the Classroom. M. Allen, J. Bourhis, E. Mabry, N.A. Burrell, C.E. Timmerman, Comparing Distance Education to Face-to-Face Methods of Education. L.M. Timmerman, Family Care Versus Day Care: Effects on Children. Part IV: Teacher Effectiveness and Communicative and Instructional Processes. D. Cortez, B.M. Gayle, R.W. Preiss, An Overview of Teacher Effectiveness Research: Components and Processes. B.M. Gayle, R.W. Preiss, M. Allen, How Effective Are Teacher-Initiated Classroom Questions in Enhancing Student Learning? D.M. Martin, R.W. Preiss, B.M. Gayle, M. Allen, A Meta-Analytic Assessment of the Effect of Humorous Lectures on Learning. R.W. Preiss, B.M. Gayle, Exploring the Relationship Between Listening Comprehension and Rate of Speech. R.W. Preiss, B.M. Gayle, A Meta-Analysis of the Educational Benefits of Employing Advanced Organizers. M. Allen, Relationship of Teaching Evaluations to Research Productivity for College Faculty. Part V: Meta-Analysis and Interactional and Instructional Process in the Classroom. B.M. Gayle, The Contributions of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. S.L. Young, T.G. Plax, P. Kearney, How Does Meta-Analysis Represent Our Knowledge of Instructional Communication? J.L. Applegate, Why SoTL Matters: Knowing What We Need to Know to Make Sure Our Students Learn What They Need to Know to Succeed as Citizens. M. Allen, R.W. Preiss, N.A. Burrell, What to Do in the Classroom? Evaluating the Advice.

Book Review: The psychology of gender (2nd ed.)

individuals may be driven to hurt others – including those they love. The second section of the book focuses on social contexts. Hence, small group and social influence scholars may find that chapters 6–10 are especially relevant. This second section pulls together, and to some extent, synthesizes, our current understanding of how various aspects of social domains affect behavior. For example, the chapters on aversive racism (Ch. 7) and sexual coercion (Ch. 10) pull together the literature in these areas and provide not only an excellent review of our current understanding of these very important and devastating social topics, but also provide the reader with a compelling set of conceptual tools to take away that serve to enhance our understanding of the seriousness and insidiousness of these two types of ‘evil.’ Furthermore, these chapters provide ways to think about how to solve these forms of anti-social behavior – making them especially relevant for social influence scholars. Section three revisits the human motivation aspects of good and evil by focusing on the role that the self plays in influencing social behavior. The overall theme that binds these chapters is that we are motivated to protect and affirm our notions of self and, as a result, we may behave anti-socially when presented with threats to the self and pro-socially to enhance our self-esteem. Along these lines, chapter 12 is especially relevant for communication scholars as it focuses on lies and deceit, which here are cast as forms of strategic social behavior. On the one hand, lying is condemned, but on the other hand, we must do it to survive and to navigate the complexities of our social environment. The final chapters focus on the social and developmental aspects of pro-social behavior with a focus on the role that relational, interpersonal, and environmental influences play in bringing about either good or evil behavior. These influences are discussed clearly in chapters 15, 16, and 18, in which the authors make the case that varied aspects of social influence (e.g., parental expressions of emotion, peer groups, and larger social environment and atmosphere factors) may bring about or help to develop higher levels of empathy and sympathy in children (Ch. 15), or drive them to be supportive or destructive (Ch. 16 and 17). Small group and social influence scholars will find these three chapters both fascinating and valuable. In addition, Chapters 15–18 include discussions of the practical implications of the issues that rely heavily on communication-based interventions – making them especially relevant for social influence scholars. To summarize, Miller has brought together an excellent set of authors who have produced a highly valuable set of chapters that review, synthesize, and advance our understanding of good and evil behavior. The text could be incorporated into an advanced undergraduate or graduate-level course with ease, and would serve as an excellent primer for discussion on how various aspects of communication play themselves out within and across the psychological, social, and environmental factors that contribute to good and evil behavior. A wide range of scholars will find value in the set of topics discussed and the various theoretical perspectives used to gain understanding of the topics. Overall, the text provides conceptual tools in the form of theoretical perspectives, analysis, and synthesis that not only deepen our understanding of social behavior and how it is driven by internal motivations and influenced by relational, interpersonal, and contextual factors, but also serve to broaden our understanding of the importance of examining social behavior from a variety of philosophical, theoretical, and methodological perspectives.