Kay Barnes

Distribution and Functional Characterization of Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter-4, a Novel Cardiac Adenosine Transporter Activated at Acidic pH

Adenosine plays multiple roles in the efficient functioning of the heart by regulating coronary blood flow, cardiac pacemaking, and contractility. Previous studies have implicated the equilibrative nucleoside transporter family member equilibrative nucleoside transporter-1 (ENT1) in the regulation of cardiac adenosine levels. We report here that a second member of this family, ENT4, is also abundant in the heart, in particular in the plasma membranes of ventricular myocytes and vascular endothelial cells but, unlike ENT1, is virtually absent from the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes. Originally described as a monoamine/organic cation transporter, we found that both human and mouse ENT4 exhibited a novel, pH-dependent adenosine transport activity optimal at acidic pH (apparent Km values 0.78 and 0.13 mmol/L, respectively, at pH 5.5) and absent at pH 7.4. In contrast, serotonin transport by ENT4 was relatively insensitive to pH. ENT4-mediated nucleoside transport was adenosine selective, sodium independent and only weakly inhibited by the classical inhibitors of equilibrative nucleoside transport, dipyridamole, dilazep, and nitrobenzylthioinosine. We hypothesize that ENT4, in addition to playing roles in cardiac serotonin transport, contributes to the regulation of extracellular adenosine concentrations, in particular under the acidotic conditions associated with ischemia.

Polarized distribution of nucleoside transporters in rat brain endothelial and choroid plexus epithelial cells

This study investigated mRNA expression and protein localization of equilibrative and concentrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs, CNTs) in primary cultures of rat brain endothelial cells (RBEC) and rat choroid plexus epithelial cells (RCPEC). Reverse transcriptase PCR analysis revealed that RBEC and RCPEC contained mRNA for rENT1, rENT2 and rCNT2 and for rENT1, rENT2, rCNT2 and rCNT3, respectively. Immunoblotting of membrane fractions of RBEC, fresh RCPEC and primary cultures of RCPEC revealed the presence of rENT1, rENT2 and rCNT2 proteins in all samples. Measurement of [14C]adenosine uptake into cells grown as monolayers on permeable plastic supports revealed a polarized distribution of Na+‐dependent adenosine uptake in that CNT activity was associated exclusively in membranes of RBEC facing the lower chamber (which corresponds to the surface facing the interstitial fluid in situ) and in membranes of RCPEC facing the upper chamber (which corresponds to the surface facing the cerebrospinal fluid in situ). In both RBEC and RCPEC, adenosine uptake from the opposite chambers was Na+‐independent and partially inhibited by nitrobenzylthioinosine, indicating the presence of the equilibrative sensitive transporter rENT1.

Chronic myeloid leukaemia: an investigation into the role of Bcr-Abl-induced abnormalities in glucose transport regulation

In chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML) expression of the chimeric tyrosine kinase, Bcr-Abl, promotes the inappropriate survival of haemopoietic stem cells by a nonautocrine mechanism in the absence of IL-3. Stimulation of glucose uptake appears to play an important role in the suppression of apoptosis by this cytokine in normal haemopoietic cells. To investigate whether the cell survival mechanisms mediated by the oncoprotein and cytokine showed any similarities, we employed a haemopoietic cell line, TonB210, engineered for inducible expression of Bcr-Abl. Tyrosine kinase expression in cytokine-deprived cells was found to mimic the effect of IL-3 in maintaining a higher Vmax for hexose uptake. In both IL-3- treated cells and those expressing Bcr-Abl, high rates of hexose uptake were associated with the retention at the cell surface of approximately 80% of the total cellular content of the GLUT1 glucose transporter. In contrast, treatment of Bcr-Abl-expressing cells for 6 h with the Bcr-Abl kinase inhibitor Glivec (10 μM), in the absence of IL-3, led to internalization of approximately 90% of the cell-surface transporters and drastically decreased (4.4±0.9 (mean±s.e.m., 4)-fold) the Vmax for hexose uptake, without significant effect on the Km for this process or on the total cellular transporter content. These effects were not the result of any significant loss in cell viability, and preceded the onset of apoptosis caused by inhibition of Bcr-Abl. Both IL-3 treatment and expression of Bcr-Abl led to enhanced phosphorylation of Akt (protein kinase B). The stimulation of transport by IL-3 and Bcr-Abl in TonB210 cells was inhibitable by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors, indicating the involvement of this kinase in the signal transduction pathway. These findings suggest that inhibition of glucose transport plays an important role in the therapeutic action of Glivec, and that the signal transduction pathways involved in transport stimulation by Bcr-Abl may offer novel therapeutic targets for CML.

Interleukin-3-mediated cell survival signals include phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent translocation of the glucose transporter GLUT1 to the cell surface

Maintenance of glucose uptake is a key component in the response of hematopoietic cells to survival factors. To investigate the mechanism of this response we employed the interleukin-3 (IL-3)-dependent murine mast cell line IC2.9. In these cells, hexose uptake decreased markedly upon withdrawal of IL-3, whereas its readdition led to rapid (t½ ∼ 10 min) stimulation of transport, associated with an ∼4-fold increase in Vmax but no change in Km. Immunocytochemistry and photoaffinity labeling revealed that IL-3 caused translocation of intracellular GLUT1 transporters to the cell surface, whereas a second transporter isoform, GLUT3, remained predominantly intracellular. The inhibitory effects of latrunculin B and jasplakinolide, and of nocodazole and colchicine, respectively, revealed a requirement for both the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons in GLUT1 translocation and transport stimulation. Both IL-3 stimulation of transport and GLUT1 translocation were also prevented by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002. The time courses for activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and its downstream target, protein kinase B, by IL-3 were consistent with a role in IL-3-induced transporter translocation and enhanced glucose uptake. We conclude that one component of the survival mechanisms elicited by IL-3 involves the subcellular redistribution of glucose transporters, thus ensuring the supply of a key metabolic substrate.

Isoforms of endothelin-converting enzyme: why and where?

A. J. T. and K. B. thank the British Heart Foundation for support of their research on ECE. The authors also thank Dr R. Corder for helpful comments on the manuscript.

Membrane Localization of Endopeptidase-24.11 and Peptidyl Dipeptidase A (Angiotensin Converting Enzyme) in the Pig Brain: A Study Using Subcellular Fractionation and Electron Microscopic Immunocytochemistry

Abstract: Brains from piglets were dissected and a block of tissue including the substantia nigra, globus pallidus, and entopeduncular nucleus was homogenized and then fractionated on discontinuous Percoll gradients. Ligand‐binding assays using (–)‐[3H]nicotine and [3H]quinuclidinyl benzilate served to delineate fractions containing nicotinic and muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. In this system endopeptidase‐24. 11 exhibited a biphasic distribution, consistent with its presence on both pre‐ and postsynaptic membranes. Peptidyl dipeptidase A (angiotensin converting enzyme; ACE) was associated with membrane fractions containing muscarinic receptors. An immunoblot of these fractions with an affinity‐purified polyclonal antibody to ACE revealed only the neuronal form of ACE (Mr 170,000), the endothelial form (Mr 180,000) being undetectable. Electron microscopic immunoperoxidase staining of the substantia nigra, with an affinity‐purified antibody to endopeptidase‐24. 11 at the preembedding stage, showed this antigen to be confined to the plasma membranes of boutons, axons, and some dendrites. Both pre‐ and postsynaptic membranes were stained, and occasionally other regions of the dendritic membrane were positive. No staining of synaptic vesicles within the boutons was observed. Thus, two independent approaches indicate that endopeptidase‐24.11 is present on both pre‐ and postsynaptic membranes in the pig substantia nigra. The subcellular fractionation suggests that neuronal ACE is confined to dendritic membranes.

Endothelin-Converting Enzyme: Ultrastructural Localization and Its Recycling From the Cell Surface

The potent vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 (ET-1) is secreted constitutively by endothelial cells and has been implicated in the pathophysiology of several cardiovascular diseases. It is generated from its inactive intermediate, big ET-1, through the action of endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE). Using several complementary techniques, we have demonstrated that ECE is present at the cell surface and on intracellular vesicles and that it recycles from the cell surface in endothelial cells. This is the first ultrastructural localization of ECE in lung and the first time big ET-1 and ECE have been colocalized by immunogold in a vesicular population, 50 to 100 nm in diameter. In addition, by double immunogold staining of ultrathin cryosections, we have localized ECE together with angiotensin-converting enzyme on the luminal membrane of endothelial cells. With cell surface biotinylation of a transformed rat endothelial cell line and of human umbilical vein endothelial cells, we have confirmed the presence of ECE on the plasma membrane. After treatment of endothelial cells with chloroquine, ECE and trans-Golgi network 38 protein were shown by immunofluorescence staining to localize to the same intracellular compartment.

The Endothelin System and Endothelin-Converting Enzyme in the Brain: Molecular and Cellular Studies

The biologically active vasoactive peptides, the endothelins (ETs), are generated from inactive intermediates, the big endothelins, by a unique processing event catalysed by the zinc metalloprotease, endothelin converting enzyme (ECE). In this overview we examine the actions of endothelins in the brain, and focus on the structure and cellular locations of ECE. The heterogeneous distribution in the brain of ET-1, ET-2, and ET-3 is discussed in relation to their hemodynamic, mitogenic and proliferative properties as well as their possible roles as neurotransmitters. The cellular and subcellular localization of ECE in neuronal and in glial cells is compared with that of other brain membrane metalloproteases, neutral endopeptidase-24.11 (neprilysin), angiotensin converting enzyme and aminopeptidase N, which all function in neuropeptide processing and metabolism. Unlike these ectoenzymes, ECE exhibits a dual localisation in the cell, being present on the plasma membrane and also, in some instances, being concentrated in a perinuclear region. This differential localization may reflect distinct targeting of different ECE isoforms, ECE-lα, ECE-1β, and ECE-2.

Expression of Endothelin‐Converting Enzyme in Both Neuroblastoma and Glial Cell Lines and Its Localization in Rat Hippocampus

Abstract: Endothelin‐converting enzyme is a phosphoramidon‐sensitive metalloprotease that cleaves big endothelin to the potent vasoconstrictor peptide, endothelin. The converting enzyme is expressed in endothelial cells in a variety of tissues and in some secretory cells. In the present study, phosphoramidon‐sensitive endothelin‐converting enzyme activity has been demonstrated by radioimmunoassay in the neuroblastoma cell line, SH‐SY5Y, and in Bu17 and C6 glioma lines. The identity of the activity was confirmed by immunoblotting, revealing a polypeptide of ∼120 kDa in each of these lines, in D384 glioma cells, and in primary astrocytes. Immunofluorescence revealed the cell‐surface location of endothelin‐converting enzyme in the neuronal and glial cell lines and in primary astrocytes. Pretreatment of SH‐SY5Y and Bu17 cells with phosphoramidon resulted in an apparent concentration of the enzyme protein in an intracellular compartment. Immunoperoxidase‐staining of rat brain sections located this metalloprotease to the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus. Endothelin‐converting enzyme‐1 was revealed by in situ hybridisation in the neuronal and glial cell lines.

Increased Expression of Endothelin-Converting Enzyme-1c Isoform in Response to High Glucose Levels in Endothelial Cells

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is both a potent vasoconstrictor and mitogenic factor that has been implicated as a cause of the micro- and macrovascular complications of diabetes mellitus. The pathway by which the high-glucose environment of diabetes mediates increased levels of endothelins has not been completely elucidated but appears to involve endothelin-converting enzyme (ECE-1), which converts inactive big ET-1 to active ET-1 peptide. To determine the effect of high glucose concentrations on the expression of ECE-1, hybrid endothelial cells (EA.hy926) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were both grown in various glucose concentrations. There was a 2-fold increase in ECE-1 immunoreactivity in the EA.hy926 cell line growing in medium containing 22.2 versus 5.5 mmol/l glucose after 24 h, which rose to greater than 20-fold after 5 days. Similar results were seen with HUVEC. Bradykinin or NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester did not change the effect of high glucose on ECE-1 protein expression. High glucose induced a 72 and 41% increase in total protein kinase C (PKC) activity in both EA.hy926 cells and HUVEC, respectively, and a 39, 49 and 109% elevation in PKC β1, β2 and δ expression, respectively, in EA.hy926 cells. The increase in ECE-1 expression was inhibited in both cell cultures by GF109203X (5 µmol/l), a general PKC inhibitor, while addition of 10 nmol/l phorbol myristic acid to EA.hy926 cells or HUVEC growing on medium containing 5.5 mmol/l glucose increased ECE-1 expression to a level similar to that of cells conditioned in high glucose. Human ECE-1 protein exists in four different isoforms, termed 1a, 1b, 1c and 1d. Northern blot analysis revealed that only ECE-1c isoform mRNA levels increased. Immunohistochemical staining of EA.hy926 cells grown in high glucose concentrations demonstrated an increase in the ECE-1c isoform, which occurred mainly in the plasma membrane. These results showed that the PKC pathway may play an important role in the glucose-mediated induction of ECE-1 expression. The main isoform to increase in response to high glucose was ECE-1c. This enzyme may be one of the factors contributing to the elevated ET-1 peptide levels observed in diabetes.