Kay Bussey

Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation

Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of peoples daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.

Influence of gender constancy and social power on sex-linked modeling

Competing predictions derived from cognitive-developmental theory and social learning theory concerning sex-linked modeling were tested. In cognitive-developmental theory, gender constancy is considered a necessary prerequisite for the emulation of same-sex models, whereas according to social learning theory, sex-role development is promoted through a vast system of social influences with modeling serving as a major conveyor of sex role information. In accord with social learning theory, even children at a lower level of gender conception emulated same-sex models in preference to opposite-sex ones. Level of gender constancy was associated with higher emulation of both male and female models rather than operating as a selective determinant of modeling. This finding corroborates modeling as a basic mechanism in the sex-typing process. In a second experiment we explored the limits of same-sex modeling by pitting social power against the force of collective modeling of different patterns of behavior by male and female models. Social power over activities and rewarding resources produced cross-sex modeling in boys, but not in girls. This unexpected pattern of cross-sex modeling is explained by the differential sex-typing pressures that exist for boys and girls and socialization experiences that heighten the attractiveness of social power for boys.

Children's Categorization and Evaluation of Different Types of Lies and Truths.

This study investigated the ability of children from three age groups (4, 8, and 11 years of age; N = 72) to categorize three different types of intentionally false and true statements as lies and truths, and also measured their evaluation of such statements. Results revealed that the older children were more likely to categorize false statements as lies and true statements as truths than were the 4-year-olds. All children evaluated telling lies as worse than telling truths. Antisocial lies were rated as the most serious lie type and “white lies” as the least serious. Anticipated regulatory control was more advanced for the 8- and 11-year-olds, who expected both self-approval for truth-telling and self-disapproval for lying for two of the three truth and lie types; the younger children did not anticipate greater self-approval for truth-telling and self-disapproval for lying for any of the truth and lie types.

On broadening the cognitive, motivational, and sociostructural scope of theorizing about gender development and functioning: comment on Martin, Ruble, and Szkrybalo (2002).

In their article on gender development, C. L. Martin, D. N. Ruble, and J. Szkrybalo (see record 2002-18663-003) contrasted their conception of gender development with that of social cognitive theory. The authors of this commentary correct misrepresentations of social cognitive theory and analyze the conceptual and empirical status of Martin et al.s (2002) theory that gender stereotype matching is the main motivating force of gender development. Martin et al. (2002) based their claim for the causal primacy of gender self-categorization on construal of gender discrimination as rudimentary self-identity, equivocal empirical evidence, and dismissal of discordant evidence because of methodological deficiencies. The repeated finding that gendered preferences and behavior precede emergence of a sense of self is discordant with their theory. Different lines of evidence confirm that gender development and functioning are socially situated, richly contextualized, and conditionally manifested rather than governed mainly by an intrinsic drive to match stereotypic gender self-conception.

Predictors of student defenders of peer aggression victims: Empathy and social cognitive factors

Despite wide recognition of the important role of student bystanders in influencing peer aggression in schools, little is currently known about what influences students to intervene in defense of peer aggression victims. This longitudinal study involving 1,167 primarily white adolescents (aged 12—15 years, 613 females) investigated the role of social cognitive factors and empathy as predictors of students defending victims of peer aggression. High levels of collective efficacy beliefs in the ability of students and teachers to work together to stop peer aggression were associated with higher frequency of defending behavior over time. For girls, empathy was also associated with defending over time.

The psychological impact of peer victimization: exploring social-cognitive mediators of depression.

Although the association between peer victimization and depression is well established (Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Nansel et al., 2001), little research has examined the processes whereby victimization may lead to depression. This study examined the social-cognitive processes that mediate the relationship between peer victimization and depression. A questionnaire measuring peer victimization, depression, depression rumination, self efficacy to enlist support, and collective school efficacy to stop peer aggression at two time points during one school year was completed by 1167 secondary school children. Rumination, collective school efficacy and self efficacy to enlist support from a friend partially mediated the relationship between victimization and depression. Children who were victimized ruminated more, which lead to increased levels of depression. Victims were also less likely to believe that students and teachers could work together to stop peer aggression, which impacted their propensity to access the support of friends leading to higher depression.

Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning

Explored the possibility that socialization into different sex roles for men and women may contribute to the observed sex difference in moral development. 40 undergraduates were classified as either masculine, feminine, or androgynous according to the Bem Sex-Role Inventory and were administered the

Individual and collective social cognitive influences on peer aggression : exploring the contribution of aggression efficacy, moral disengagement, and collective efficacy

This follow-up study with 1,167 primarily White adolescents (aged 13.45 years at T1, 613 females) examined the impact of self-efficacy for aggression, moral disengagement, and collective efficacy beliefs on peer aggression in schools. Students completed questionnaire measures at the beginning and end of the school year (8 months apart). High aggression efficacy and moral disengagement scores predicted higher frequency of peer aggression over time. Low collective efficacy beliefs regarding the ability of students and teachers to collaboratively act to inhibit peer aggression were also associated with more frequent aggression, although this association was stronger at higher levels of moral disengagement. The findings of this study highlight the need to consider collective efficacy beliefs in conjunction with individual social cognitive processes when seeking to explain aggressive behavior.

Implications of developmental research for interviewing children

This article first provides a brief review of recent research to update the investigative interviewer on childrens development of cognition, memory and language. Next, we review results of studies which have focused on the development of childrens specific knowledge about the legal system, and identify developmental and motivational factors which may influence childrens willingness to report in legal settings. Next, clinical and research literature of young childrens experience in pediatric settings offers ecologically compelling data for understanding childrens reports of abusive touch, and strategies used for preparing children for medical procedures may be drawn on for preparation of children in sexual abuse cases. Finally, several issues are identified for future research.

Disclosure processes in children and adolescents: Disclosure processes: issues for child sexual abuse victims

The definition of child abuse has only recently been extended to include sexual abuse (Burgess, Groth, Holstrom, & Sgroi, 1978; Finkelhor, 1979; Herman, 1981). The pioneering work of Kempe and colleagues (Kempe, Silverman, Steele, Droegemueller, & Silver, 1962) directed the attention of both the public and professionals to severe physical abuse in their description of the battered child syndrome. It is not acknowledged that not only are a substantial number of children victim to physical abuse, but a substantial number are also victim to sexual abuse. There are many ways in which child sexual abuse differs from physical abuse, but probably the most significant difference lies in the lack of visible external scars to corroborate its occurrence. Consequently, the substantiation of sexual abuse becomes a question of who is believed: the alleged perpetrator, who more often than not denies the abuse, or the child victim, who alleges it. Further, in contrast to physical abuse cases, which are mostly heard in childrens courts, sexual abuse cases, at least in North America, England, Australia, and New Zealand, are usually dealt with in criminal courts. The alleged perpetrator of sexual abuse is charged with a criminal offense and the child victim is often required to testify in a criminal court. Because there is rarely a witness to sexual abuse and very often no physical evidence, the case therefore is a trial of the child victims word against the adult perpetrators word.