Kazi Matin Ahmed

Arsenic poisoning of Bangladesh groundwater

In Bangladesh and West Bengal, alluvial Ganges aquifers used for public water supply are polluted with naturally occurring arsenic, which adversely affects the health of millions of people. Here we show that the arsenic derives from the reductive dissolution of arsenic-rich iron oxyhydroxides, which in turn are derived from weathering of base-metal sulphides. This finding means it should now be possible, by sedimentological study of the Ganges alluvial sediments, to guide the placement of new water wells so they will be free of arsenic.

Mechanism of arsenic release to groundwater, Bangladesh and West Bengal

In some areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, concentrations of As in groundwater exceed guide concentrations, set internationally and nationally at 10 to 50 m gl ˇ1 and may reach levels in the mg l ˇ1 range. The As derives from reductive dissolution of Fe oxyhydroxide and release of its sorbed As. The Fe oxyhydroxide exists in the aquifer as dispersed phases, such as coatings on sedimentary grains. Recalculated to pure FeOOH, As concentrations in this phase reach 517 ppm. Reduction of the Fe is driven by microbial metabolism of sedimentary organic matter, which is present in concentrations as high as 6% C. Arsenic released by oxidation of pyrite, as water levels are drawn down and air enters the aquifer, contributes negligibly to the problem of As pollution. Identification of the mechanism of As release to groundwater helps to provide a framework to guide the placement of new water wells so that they will have acceptable concentrations of As. # 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Dissolved organic matter sources and consequences for iron and arsenic mobilization in Bangladesh aquifers.

Iron (Fe) and dissolved organic matter (DOM) cycling have been implicated in arsenic mobilization via microbially mediated Fe oxide reduction. To evaluate the sources and multiple roles of DOM in Bangladesh aquifers, we conducted spectroscopic analyses on various types of surface water and groundwater samples from a site representative of aquifer chemistry and hydrology. Surface water contained humic substances with oxidized quinone-like moieties and high concentrations of labile microbially derived DOM. In contrast, in shallow groundwater where dissolved iron and arsenic concentrations were high, the quinone-like moieties of humic substances were more reduced, with less abundant labile DOM than that of surface water. Instead, DOM at these depths was characterized by terrestrial (plant/soil) signatures. A sediment microcosm experiment demonstrated that Fe(II) and terrestrially derived DOM were released from sediment over time. The results provide new evidence to support a dual role of natural DOM in Bangladesh aquifers (1) as a labile substrate for Fe- and humic-reducing bacteria and (2) as an electron shuttle via humic substances to enhance microbial iron reduction. Fluorescence index, amino acid-like fluorescence, and redox index may serve as useful indicators of the type of DOM likely to be involved in Fe solubilization and potentially As mobilization reactions.

Hydrogeochemical comparison and effects of overlapping redox zones on groundwater arsenic near the Western (Bhagirathi sub-basin, India) and Eastern (Meghna sub-basin, Bangladesh) margins of the Bengal Basin

Although arsenic (As) contamination of groundwater in the Bengal Basin has received wide attention over the past decade, comparative studies of hydrogeochemistry in geologically different sub-basins within the basin have been lacking. Groundwater samples were collected from sub-basins in the western margin (River Bhagirathi sub-basin, Nadia, India; 90 samples) and eastern margin (River Meghna sub-basin; Brahmanbaria, Bangladesh; 35 samples) of the Bengal Basin. Groundwater in the western site (Nadia) has mostly Ca-HCO(3) water while that in the eastern site (Brahmanbaria) is much more variable consisting of at least six different facies. The two sites show differences in major and minor solute trends indicating varying pathways of hydrogeochemical evolution However, both sites have similar reducing, postoxic environments (p(e): +5 to -2) with high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon, indicating dominantly metal-reducing processes and similarity in As mobilization mechanism. The trends of various redox-sensitive solutes (e.g. As, CH(4), Fe, Mn, NO(3)(-), NH(4)(+), SO(4)(2-)) indicate overlapping redox zones, leading to partial redox equilibrium conditions where As, once liberated from source minerals, would tend to remain in solution because of the complex interplay among the electron acceptors.

Arsenic migration to deep groundwater in Bangladesh influenced by adsorption and water demand

Drinking shallow groundwater with naturally elevated concentrations of arsenic is causing widespread disease in many parts of South and Southeast Asia. In the Bengal Basin, growing reliance on deep (>150 m) groundwater has lowered exposure. In the most affected districts of Bangladesh, shallow groundwater concentrations average 100 to 370 μg L−1, while deep groundwater is typically < 10 μg L−1. Groundwater flow simulations have suggested that, even when deep pumping is restricted to domestic use, deep groundwater in some areas of the Bengal Basin is at risk of contamination. However, these simulations have neglected the impedance of As migration by adsorption to aquifer sediments. Here we quantify for the first time As sorption on deeper sediments in situ by replicating the intrusion of shallow groundwater through injection of 1,000 L of deep groundwater modified with 200 μg L−1 of As into a deeper aquifer. Arsenic concentrations in the injected water were reduced by 70% due to adsorption within a single day. Basin-scale modelling indicates that while As adsorption extends the sustainable use of deep groundwater, some areas remain vulnerable; these areas can be prioritized for management and monitoring.

Monitoring 51 community wells in Araihazar, Bangladesh, for up to 5 years: Implications for arsenic mitigation

In order to reduce the exposure to As naturally occurring in shallow groundwater of the Bengal Basin, tens of thousands of tubewells tapping deeper aquifers of the Bengal Basin have been installed. We address here lingering concerns that As concentrations in deep tubewells might increase over time with monitoring data spanning a period of up to 5 years for 51 community wells, 115–545 ft (34–164 m) deep, installed in Araihazar upazila, Bangladesh. This exceptionally detailed data set shows that all but 4 of these community wells have consistently provided drinking water that meets the Bangladesh standard for As in drinking water of 50 μg L− 1; all but 10 community wells have also consistently met the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline for As of 10 μ g L− 1. Groundwater pumped from one third of the community wells does not meet the current WHO guideline for Mn in drinking water of 0.4 mg L− 1, although Mn concentrations are lower than in most surrounding shallow wells. In addition to As and Mn, concentrations of 10 elements (Cr, Ni, Cu, Cd, Ba, Hg, Mo, Sb, Pb, and U) out of a total 19 inorganic constituents of potential health concern were monitored and found to be below their respective guideline values established by WHO. Further study is required to evaluate the health consequences of Mn exposure, but the increase in As concentrations in 4 community wells indicates that all deeper tubewells should be periodically re-tested.

Temporal variability of groundwater chemistry in shallow and deep aquifers of Araihazar, Bangladesh

Samples were collected every 2-4 weeks from a set of 37 monitoring wells over a period of 2-3 years in Araihazar, Bangladesh, to evaluate the temporal variability of groundwater composition for As and other constituents. The monitoring wells are grouped in 6 nests and span the 5-91 m depth range. Concentrations of As, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, and S were measured by high-resolution ICPMS with a precision of 5% or better; concentrations of Cl were measured by ion chromatography. In shallow wells <30 m deep, As and P concentrations generally varied by <30%, whereas concentrations of the major ions (Na, K, Mg, Ca and Cl) and the redox-sensitive elements (Fe, Mn, and S) varied over time by up to +/-90%. In wells tapping the deeper aquifers >30 m often below clay layers concentrations of groundwater As were much lower and varied by <10%. The concentrations of major cations also varied by <10% in these deep aquifers. In contrast, the concentration of redox-sensitive constituents Fe, S, and Mn in deep aquifers varied by up to 97% over time. Thus, strong decoupling between variations in As and Fe concentrations is evident in groundwaters from shallow and deep aquifers. Comparison of the time series data with groundwater ages determined by (3)H/(3)He and (14)C dating shows that large seasonal or inter-annual variations in major cation and chloride concentrations are restricted to shallow aquifers and groundwater recharged <5 years ago. There is no corresponding change in As concentrations despite having significant variations of redox sensitive constituents in these very young waters. This is attributed to chemical buffering due to rapid equilibrium between solute and solid As. At two sites where the As content of groundwater in existing shallow wells averages 102 microg/L (range: <5 to 648 microg/L; n=118) and 272 microg/L (range: 10 to 485 microg/L; n=65), respectively, a systematic long-term decline in As concentrations lends support to the notion that flushing may slowly deplete an aquifer of As. Shallow aquifer water with >5 years (3)H/(3)He age show a constant As:P molar ratio of 9.6 over time, suggesting common mechanisms of mobilization.

Comparison of fecal indicators with pathogenic bacteria and rotavirus in groundwater

Groundwater is routinely analyzed for fecal indicators but direct comparisons of fecal indicators to the presence of bacterial and viral pathogens are rare. This study was conducted in rural Bangladesh where the human population density is high, sanitation is poor, and groundwater pumped from shallow tubewells is often contaminated with fecal bacteria. Five indicator microorganisms (E. coli, total coliform, F+RNA coliphage, Bacteroides and human-associated Bacteroides) and various environmental parameters were compared to the direct detection of waterborne pathogens by quantitative PCR in groundwater pumped from 50 tubewells. Rotavirus was detected in groundwater filtrate from the largest proportion of tubewells (40%), followed by Shigella (10%), Vibrio (10%), and pathogenic E. coli (8%). Spearman rank correlations and sensitivity-specificity calculations indicate that some, but not all, combinations of indicators and environmental parameters can predict the presence of pathogens. Culture-dependent fecal indicator bacteria measured on a single date did not predict total bacterial pathogens, but annually averaged monthly measurements of culturable E. coli did improve prediction for total bacterial pathogens. A qPCR-based E. coli assay was the best indicator for the bacterial pathogens. F+RNA coliphage were neither correlated nor sufficiently sensitive towards rotavirus, but were predictive of bacterial pathogens. Since groundwater cannot be excluded as a significant source of diarrheal disease in Bangladesh and neighboring countries with similar characteristics, the need to develop more effective methods for screening tubewells with respect to microbial contamination is necessary.

Comparison of dissolved and particulate arsenic distributions in shallow aquifers of Chakdaha, India, and Araihazar, Bangladesh.

BackgroundThe origin of the spatial variability of dissolved As concentrations in shallow aquifers of the Bengal Basin remains poorly understood. To address this, we compare here transects of simultaneously-collected groundwater and aquifer solids perpendicular to the banks of the Hooghly River in Chakdaha, India, and the Old Brahmaputra River in Araihazar, Bangladesh.ResultsVariations in surface geomorphology mapped by electromagnetic conductivity indicate that permeable sandy soils are associated with underlying aquifers that are moderately reducing to a depth of 10–30 m, as indicated by acid-leachable Fe(II)/Fe ratios <0.6 in the solid phase and concentrations of dissolved sulfate >5 mg L-1. More reducing aquifers are typically capped with finer-grained soils. The patterns suggest that vertical recharge through permeable soils is associated with a flux of oxidants on the banks of the Hooghly River and, further inland, in both Chakdaha and Araihazar. Moderately reducing conditions maintained by local recharge are generally associated with low As concentrations in Araihazar, but not systematically so in Chakdaha. Unlike Araihazar, there is also little correspondence in Chakdaha between dissolved As concentrations in groundwater and the P-extractable As content of aquifer particles, averaging 191 ± 122 ug As/L, 1.1 ± 1.5 mg As kg-1 (n = 43) and 108 ± 31 ug As/L, 3.1 ± 6.5 mg As kg-1 (n = 60), respectively. We tentatively attribute these differences to a combination of younger floodplain sediments, and therefore possibly more than one mechanism of As release, as well as less reducing conditions in Chakdaha compared to Araihazar.ConclusionSystematic dating of groundwater and sediment, combined with detailed mapping of the composition of aquifer solids and groundwater, will be needed to identify the various mechanisms underlying the complex distribution of As in aquifers of the Bengal Basin.

Geochemical characterisation of shallow aquifer sediments of Matlab Upazila, Southeastern Bangladesh — Implications for targeting low-As aquifers

High arsenic (As) concentrations in groundwater pose a serious threat to the health of millions of people in Bangladesh. Reductive dissolution of Fe(III)-oxyhydroxides and release of its adsorbed As is considered to be the principal mechanism responsible for mobilisation of As. The distribution of As is extremely heterogeneous both laterally and vertically. Groundwater abstracted from oxidised reddish sediments, in contrast to greyish reducing sediments, contains significantly lower amount of dissolved arsenic and can be a source of safe water. In order to study the sustainability of that mitigation option, this study describes the lithofacies and genesis of the sediments within 60 m depth and establishes a relationship between aqueous and solid phase geochemistry. Oxalate extractable Fe and Mn contents are higher in the reduced unit than in the oxidised unit, where Fe and Mn are present in more crystalline mineral phases. Equilibrium modelling of saturation indices suggest that the concentrations of dissolved Fe, Mn and PO(4)(3-)-tot in groundwater is influenced by secondary mineral phases in addition to redox processes. Simulating As(III) adsorption on hydroferric oxides using the Diffuse Layer Model and analytical data gave realistic concentrations of dissolved and adsorbed As(III) for the reducing aquifer and we speculate that the presence of high PO(4)(3-)-tot in combination with reductive dissolution results in the high-As groundwater. The study confirms high mobility of As in reducing aquifers with typically dark colour of sediments found in previous studies and thus validates the approach for location of wells used by local drillers based on sediment colour. A more systematic and standardised colour description and similar studies at more locations are necessary for wider application of the approach.