Kazunari Makino

Influence of axle–wheel interface on ultrasonic testing of fatigue cracks in wheelset

For the ultrasonic testing at the wheel seat of railway axles, quantitative investigation of the reflection and transmission phenomena at the axle-wheel interface is important. This paper describes the influence of the axle-wheel interface on the ultrasonic testing of a fatigue crack in a wheelset by applying the spring interface model. The normal and tangential stiffnesses were identified experimentally for an as-manufactured wheelset at the normal incidence, and the reflection coefficient for the shear-wave oblique incidence was calculated. A parametric study was performed to clarify the influence of these interfacial stiffnesses on the incident-angle dependence of the reflection coefficient. The calculated reflection coefficient at the incident angle of 45° qualitatively explained the relative echo-height decrease due to the presence of a wheel observed experimentally for a wheelset in fatigue loading by rotating bending. The quantitative difference between the experimental and calculated results was considered to be due to the reduction of the effective interference of shrink fit by the wear at the axle-wheel interface during the fatigue loading as well as by the applied bending moment. For the estimated relative echo-height decrease to agree with the experimental results, the interfacial stiffnesses were found to be smaller than the values identified for the as-manufactured wheelset by a factor of 0.5-0.7.

Ultrasonic evaluation of fatigue cracks at the wheel seat of a miniature wheelset

Ultrasonic testing of axles is an important issue with regard to the integrity assessment of railway vehicles. In this study, several aspects of the ultrasonic evaluation of fatigue cracks in an axle are examined experimentally. Namely, the effects of (i) the bending load applied to the axle, (ii) the presence of a wheel fitted to the axle and (iii) the nominal frequency and the type of an ultrasonic probe, on the measured ultrasonic echo height of a crack are examined. To this aim, two fatigue cracks of different depths were developed at the wheel seat of a miniature wheelset test piece by rotating bending, and were inspected using angle probes and grazing shear-horizontal-wave (SH-wave) probes under bending loads. The echo height of the cracks varied remarkably with the bending stress due to its crack opening/closing effect, accompanying some hysteresis. A possible reason for this is discussed qualitatively based on the ultrasonic wave transmission across the crack surfaces as well as the axle–wheel interface. The performances of different probes in detecting echo signals as well as estimating crack depths are compared and discussed. As a result, it is found that (i) the use of grazing SH-wave probes may be useful for crack detection, and (ii) the application of bending load to the wheelset will be advantageous in highlighting the echo signal. The observed effect of the nominal frequency of the probe on the echo-height level is examined in a qualitative manner. Finally, the applicability of the present results to full-sized axles is discussed.

Ultrasonic inspection of axle flaws at fitting seats in consideration of probability of detection (POD)

In the ultrasonic inspection of railway axles, the sensitivity is usually adjusted using a model wheelset where some artificial flaws are machined. The flaw echo height can be associated with its size by the linear regression. However, the echo heights essentially have some dispersion and it would become wider for the flaws in the fitting seats where a wheel or a gear is fitted. In this study, the relation between the flaw echo height and the reflection area of flaws was obtained for the hollow axles with some artificial flaws on their respective surfaces. The relation for the flaws in the axle body was compared with the one for the flaws in the wheel seat with the help of the probability of detection (POD) curve. Even though the detection threshold with the probability of 50% was set for a flaw having an almost identical area in each case, the detectable area of a flaw with the probability of 90% at a lower confidence limit of 95% in the wheel seat was more than twice larger than that in the axle body. It implies that the flaw detection threshold in the fitting seats should be lowered additionally to keep sufficient confidence.

Modeling and simulation of ultrasonic testing on miniature wheelset

An ultrasonic testing was carried out for a fatigue crack with the depth of 3.5 mm which was developed on the surface of the wheel seat of a miniature wheelset test piece by the rotating bending fatigue test. The decrease of the flawecho height in case with the wheel to that without the wheel was 13.1 dB when using a 2 MHz probe. We applied a model referred to as the “acoustic impedance adjustment model” to the axle–wheel interface and performed a finite element analysis of the ultrasound propagation. The calculation result showed that the decrease was 10.6 dB, which differed slightly from the experimental result. We discussed the difference of these results.