Kees Stigter

Problems and Solutions in Coping with Extreme Meteorological Events in Agricultural Production and Challenges Remaining for the use of Science to Contribute to Problem Analyses and Designing Valuable Solutions in This Context: Multiple Cropping

In Chap. III.1, multiple cropping systems relevant to this section have been discussed. Understanding on the phenomena, impacts, actions, problems, solutions and policies related to priority extreme meteorological events that cause farmers and their local governments the largest difficulties in multiple cropping in a region may, with the exception of the phenomena, be supposed to be different from those in monocropping by the same category of farmers (see Sect. III.2.3.(A)). The issue to attend to here appears to be what multiple cropping systems have as defence strategies to extreme meteorological events that are less efficient or not available in monocropping and what science can contribute to understanding and developing such strategies

Ethics and Policies

Early 2009 I got the invitation to deliver in the summer in Madison, Wisconsin (USA), a paper at a conference on “Sustaining soil productivity in response to global climate change: science, policy and ethics”. I decided to talk about “Rural response to climate change in poor countries: ethics, policies and scientific support systems in their agricultural environments” (Stigter 2009a).

“Paleez Khoursheed”: Agrometeorology for Precision Farming in Iran

“Precision farming” or “precision agriculture” is an agricultural concept relying on the existence of in-field variability. It is about doing the right thing, in the right place, in the right way, at the right time. It requires the use of new technologies, such as a global positioning system (GPS), sensors, satellites or aerial images, and information management tools (GIS) to assess and understand variations.

Designing and Selecting Early Warning Strategies and Increasing Their Efficiencies: Multiple Cropping

When designing early warning strategies, one has to understand the climate, the agriculture and the social or livelihoods aspects of the area. Therefore one must have a good idea of what climate/weather information, products and services are available, so that their applications can be further developed and utilized in the early warning service. Then the current status of the stakeholders or community and their agricultural production systems should also be well understood, so that one can identify the opportunities. This can be done using the livelihood profiles and livelihoods baselines (see for example www.fews.net ) and a range of options – including farming system options – available to the people, whether at a household, a community or a national/regional level.

Designs of (Changes in) Protection Measures Against Extreme Climate in Agroforestry

We want to discuss here the protection of non-forest trees against hail and frost. Parts of these stories can be much more generally applied, because protection principles in agroforestry are quite often not system specific.

Designing and Communicating Improvements in Farm Applications of Risk Information Products: Monocropping

We started Sect. III.2.5.(δ) with the statement that risk information products are building stones of agrometeorological services (also Stigter 2005; Rathore and Stigter 2007). An example from Nigeria for intercropping was shown by Stigter et al. (2005). This picture for multiple cropping was drawn for Africa as early as 15 years ago (Oluwasemire et al. 1995) but for China only recently (Stigter et al. 2008).

The Development of Microclimate Modification Patterns: Monocropping

We deal here with the strategic use of climate information in the adoption of microclimate modification techniques in monocropping (e.g. Barfield and Gerber 1979). This is about decreasing or increasing the exposure of surfaces, either the actual soil surface or the more composite surfaces including above surface living and dead material, to radiation, precipitation and wind and/or changing the original properties of (composite) surfaces, resulting in an alteration of the impact of these large scale weather elements (Stigter and Darnhofer 1989).

(Changes in) Adaptation Strategies to Climate Changes: Multiple Cropping

Under agriculture as key areas for adaptation to climate change in China, one issue was explicitly to promote adjustment of agricultural structure and cropping systems. It was proposed to extend the planting areas of economic and forage crops, and promote the shift of the structure of cropping systems from a dual structure with food crop and cash crop to a ternary structure with food crop, cash crop and forage crop. This way cropping systems were adjusted, developing multiple cropping and raising multiple cropping indexes. Furthermore, all walks of life of the society would be fully employed to disseminate China’s efforts and policies for response to climate change and to promote public awareness of climate change (Pan 2007).

Combating Disasters by Using Agroforestry

Trees outside forests and agroforestry are defined in Box III.5.1. It is recognized (Stolton et al. 2008) that there have been many international agreements and declarations linking the preservation of ecosystem services with the mitigation of disasters. But it must be noted that in many cases it is only the permanent and well-managed setting aside of land and sea as protected areas which can provide the stability and protection so often called for.

Improving Coping Strategies with Weather and Climate Related Risks in Agroforestry, Including the Improved Use of Insurance Approaches

Tree planting may among others reduce salinity, improve soil fertility, control and prevent erosion, control water logging, reduce the greenhouse effect, reduce catchment eutrophication, possibly check acidification and probably increase local biodiversity (e.g. Prinsley 1993). Woody plants can play a significant role in the transition phase of agrosilvopastoral systems in semi-arid regions from extensive systems to intensified systems. Woody plants provide buffering functions, stabilizing ecosystem dynamics, and allowing effective use of additional nutrient an water inputs, or allowing effective use of these resources where they occur naturally. So far woody plants have been predominantly used for productive purposes. Substantial changes are required to change the focus to protective and supportive functions (Breman and Kessler 1995). See also Stigter and Baldy (1993) and Box III.5.24.