Keiko Koda

Cross-linguistic variations in L2 morphological awareness

This study investigated the effects of L1 processing experience on L2 morphological awareness. Preliminary cross-linguistic comparisons indicated that morphological awareness in two typologically distinct languages, Chinese and English, differs in several major ways. Based on the comparisons, three specific hypotheses were formulated: compared with learners with a typologically similar L1 background, Chinese learners of English as an L2 would be less sensitive to intraword structural salience, less efficient in structural analysis, and more adept at integrating word-internal (morphological) and word-external (context) information. These hypotheses were tested empirically with two groups of adult L2 learners of English with contrasting L1 backgrounds (Chinese and Korean). The data demonstrated that virtually no difference existed between the two ESL groups in their intraword structural sensitivity, and that, although Chinese learners were notably slower than Korean learners in performing intraword structural analysis, they were far more efficient in integrating morphological and contextual information during sentence processing. Viewed collectively, these findings seem to suggest that L1 processing experience influences the development of L2 morphological awareness in specific and predictable ways.

The Use of L1 Reading Strategies in L2 Reading

This study investigated first language (L1) orthographic influence on cognitive processing involved in second language (L2) reading. Using a fundamental unit of representation, three orthographic systems (i.e., alphabet, syllabary, and logography) can be categorized into two types: morphography and phonography. Previous L1 reading research has suggested that different strategies are used for phonological recoding by morphographic and phonographic readers. This study tested the possibility that these L1 recoding strategies are transferred and utilized in L2 reading. A cross-linguistic experiment involving adult L2 learners of English with contrasting L1 orthographic backgrounds (Arabic, Japanese, Spanish, and English—for native control) was conducted. The results indicate that reading among phonographic readers (Arabic, Spanish, and English) is seriously impaired when essential phonological information is inaccessible. Similar phonological inaccessibility, in contrast, apparently does not affect the reading performance of Japanese, or morphographic, readers. Further, the study demonstrated, first, that phonological inaccessibility exerts differential effects on the reading processes of phonographic and morphographic readers and, second, that L2 readers from different L1 orthographic backgrounds utilize their L1 strategies in reading English as an L2. Hence, the findings of the study verify cognitive strategy transfer during L2 reading.

The Development of Word Recognition in a Second Language.

Do differences among first languages (LI) affect word recognition in reading a second language (L2)? Participants in this study had either Indonesian (an alphabetic language) or Chinese (a logographic language) as an L1 and were learning English (an alphabetic language) as an L2. Under the connectionist rubric, it was predicted that an alphabetic LI would facilitate word recognition in an alphabetic L2, especially if the LI and L2 have similar spelling patterns. Facilitation is relative to a logographic LI. The model also predicted a better recognition for high-frequency words in the L2 relative to low-frequency words. The results of a lexical decision task largely confirmed these hypotheses.

Second Language Reading Research: Problems and Possibilities.

A major purpose of this article is to examine first language (L1) reading theories from second language (L2) perspectives and, in so doing, to uncover significant research voids related to L2 problems. The article first considers the unique aspects of L2 reading in order to identify dimensions in which its theory must differ from accepted L1 constructs. It then discusses three fundamental distinctions that separate L1 and L2 reading: (a) the consequences of prior reading experience; (b) the effects of crosslinguistic processing; and (c) the compensatory devices stemming from the efforts of learners with limited linguistic knowledge to solve comprehension problems. Finally, several pedagogically oriented research themes which may be helpful in evaluating the instructional utility of current L2 reading theories are delineated.

Development of L2 Intraword Orthographic Sensitivity and Decoding Skills

This study examines orthographic sensitivity among adult second language (L2) learners with diverse first language (L1) backgrounds. The specific purposes are three-fold: (a) to determine whether there are differences among adult learners of English as a second language (ESL) with alphabetic and non-alphabetic L1 backgrounds in their intraword structural sensitivity, (b) to explore specific ways in which such sensitivity differs among L1 and L2 readers of English, and (c) to examine the extent to which the sensitivity affects decoding performance among ESL participants. The findings suggest that (a) L1 alphabetic experience promotes L2 intraword structural sensitivity; (b) ESL learners, regardless of their L1 backgrounds, are strongly inclined to use visual familiarity as a primary cue during orthographic processing; (c) the ability to detect orthographic constraint violations separates L2 from L1 readers; and (d) qualitative differences in L1 processing experience are directly associated with procedural variations in L2 decoding, but such variations do not always result in quantitative differences in decoding performance.

Cognitive process in second language reading: transfer of L1 reading skills and strategies:

Two crosslinguistic experiments were conducted with 83 skilled readers from four contrasting L1 orthographic backgrounds. Experiment 1 tested the effects of blocking either visual or sound information on lexical decision-making. Experiment 2 examined the effects of heterographic homophones (e.g. eight and ate) on reading comprehension. Data from the two experiments demonstrate that the subjects utilize cognitive skills and strategies developed in their L 1 when reading English as an L2, suggesting that (a) L1-L2 cognitive process transfer does take place in L2 reading and also that (b) orthographic structure exerts a significant influence on cognitive processess in reading.

Effects of L1 orthographic representation on L2 phonological coding strategies

The study investigated L1 orthographic impact on cognitive processing involved in L2 reading. In a cross-linguistic experiment with four orthographically diverse groups (Arabic, English, Japanese, and Spanish), the effects of two types of phonological encoding interference (phonological similarity and unpronounceability) on short-term memory recall performance in English were compared. Data demonstrate that (a) STM recall performance of all four groups was seriously impaired when phonological encoding interference was present, (b) the two types of interference had differential effects on STM performance between phonographic (Arabic, English, and Spanish) and morphographic (Japanese) readers, and (c) phonological coding strategies used in L1 and L2 are consistent. These results seem to indicate, first, that a phonological code is dominantly used in the STM encoding process regardless of the language background: second, that different phonological coding strategies are used among subjects with contrasting orthographic backgrounds; and, third, that strategies used in L1 processing are transferred to L2 processing. Hence, the findings of the study suggest that there is a strong relationship between orthography and cognition.

The role of phonemic awareness in second language reading

This study investigates the effects of disparate L1 (first language) alphabetic experience on L2 (second language) phonemic awareness and decoding among ESL (English as a Second Language) readers with alphabetic and nonalphabetic L1 orthographic backgrounds. It was hypothesized that amount of L1 alphabetic experience is causally related to the development of L2 phonemic awareness and decoding skills. The specific objectives were threefold: to compare varying aspects of phonemic awareness among Chinese and Korean ESL learners; to explore the relationship between L2 phonemic awareness and decoding skills;and to examine the extent to which L2 text comprehension is facilitated by phonemic awareness and decoding skills. Data demonstrated that the two groups differed neither in their phonemic awareness nor in decoding;phonemic awareness was differentially related to decoding performance between the groups; and strong interconnections existed between reading comprehension, decoding and phonemic awareness among Korean participants, but no such direct relationships occurred among Chinese. Viewed collectively, these findings seem to suggest that, while differential L1 orthographic experience is not directly associated with L2 phonemic awareness, variations in prior processing experience may engender the use of diverse phonological processing procedures and, thus, account for qualitative differences in L2 processing behaviours.

Awareness of derivation and compounding in Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition

This study examines the intra- and inter-lingual relationships between first and second language morphological awareness and reading comprehension among grade 6 Chinese learners of English as a foreign language in China. Morphological awareness measures covered compounding as well as derivation. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that within both Chinese and English, compound and derivational awareness independently and significantly predicted reading comprehension. Cross-linguistically, Chinese compound awareness explained a unique proportion of variance in English reading comprehension, over and above English vocabulary knowledge, English compound awareness, and other related variables. Such a cross-linguistic effect, however, was not found of English compound awareness on Chinese reading comprehension. Derivational awareness in one language did not show a significant cross-linguistic relationship with reading comprehension in the other language, when other variables were considered. These results are discussed in light of the importance of morphological awareness to reading comprehension, cross-linguistic transfer of morphological awareness and a possible linguistic distance effect on such transfer, and the context of Chinese–English biliteracy acquisition.

Sociolinguistic perspectives on bilingual education

Las escuelas bilingues - the Peruvian experience ethnic relations and bilingual education - accounting for contradictory data language and ethnic boundaries (with R.G. Paulston) theoretical perspectives on bilingual education programs biculturalism - some reflections and speculations recent developments in research on bilingual education in the United States problems in the comparative analysis of bilingual education language planning.