Keith H. Williamson

Nutritional, physiological, and perceptual responses during a summer ultraendurance cycling event.

Armstrong, LE, Casa, DJ, Emmanuel, H, Ganio, MS, Klau, JF, Lee, EC, Maresh, CM, McDermott, BP, Stearns, RL, Vingren, JL, Wingo, JE, Williamson, KH, and Yamamoto, LM. Nutritional, physiological, and perceptual responses during a summer ultraendurance cycling event. J Strength Cond Res 26(2): 307–318, 2012—Despite the rapid growth of mass participation road cycling, little is known about the dietary, metabolic, and behavioral responses of ultraendurance cyclists. This investigation describes physiological responses, perceptual ratings, energy balance, and macronutrient intake of 42 men (mean ± SD; age, 38 ± 6 years; height, 179.7 ± 7.1 cm; body mass, 85.85 ± 14.79 kg) and 6 women (age, 41 ± 4 years; height, 168.0 ± 2.9 cm; body mass, 67.32 ± 7.21 kg) during a summer 164-km road cycling event. Measurements were recorded 1 day before, and on the Event Day (10.5 hours) at the start (0 km), at 2 aid stations (52 and 97 km), and at the finish line (164 km). The ambient temperature was >39.0° C during the final 2 hours of exercise. The mean finish times for men (9.1 ± 1.2 hours) and women (9.0 ± 0.2 hours) were similar, as were mean gastrointestinal temperature (TGI), 4 hydration biomarkers, and 5 perceptual (e.g., thermal, thirst, pain) ratings. Male cyclists consumed enough fluids on the Event Day (5.91 ± 2.38 L; 49% water) to maintain body mass within 0.76 kg, start to finish, despite a sweat loss of 1.13 ± 0.54 L·h−1 and calculated energy expenditure of 3,115 kcal·10.5·h−1. However, men voluntarily underconsumed food energy (deficit of 2,594 kcal, 10.9 MJ) and specific macronutrients (carbohydrates, 106 ± 48 g; protein, 8 ± 7 g; and sodium, 852 ± 531 mg) between 0530 and 1400 hours. Also, a few men exhibited extreme final values (i.e., urine specific gravity of 1.035–1.038, n = 5; body mass loss >4 kg, n = 2; TGI, 39.4 and 40.2°C). We concluded that these findings provide information regarding energy consumption, macronutrient intake, hydration status, and the physiological stresses that are unique to ultraendurance exercise in a hot environment.

Endurance Cyclist Fluid Intake, Hydration Status, Thirst, and Thermal Sensations: Gender Differences.

This field investigation assessed differences (e.g., drinking behavior, hydration status, perceptual ratings) between female and male endurance cyclists who completed a 164-km event in a hot environment (35 °C mean dry bulb) to inform rehydration recommendations for athletes. Three years of data were pooled to create 2 groups of cyclists: women (n = 15) and men (n = 88). Women were significantly smaller (p < .001) than men in height (166 ± 5 vs. 179 ± 7 cm), body mass (64.6 ± 7.3 vs. 86.4 ± 12.3 kg), and body mass index (BMI; 23.3 ± 1.8 vs. 26.9 ± 3.4) and had lower preevent urinary indices of hydration status, but were similar to men in age (43 ± 7 years vs. 44 ± 9 years) and exercise time (7.77 ± 1.24 hr vs. 7.23 ± 1.75 hr). During the 164-km ride, women lost less body mass (-0.7 ± 1.0 vs. -1.7 ± 1.5 kg; -1.1 ± 1.6% vs. -1.9 ± 1.8% of body weight; p < .005) and consumed less fluid than men (4.80 ± 1.28 L vs. 5.59 ± 2.13 L; p < .005). Women consumed a similar volume of fluid as men, relative to body mass (milliliters/kilogram). To control for performance and anthropomorphic characteristics, 15 women were pair-matched with 15 men on the basis of exercise time on the course and BMI; urine-specific gravity, urine color, and body mass change (kilograms and percentage) were different (p < .05) in 4 of 6 comparisons. No gender differences were observed for ratings of thirst, thermal sensation, or perceived exertion. In conclusion, differences in relative fluid volume consumed and hydration indices suggest that professional sports medicine organizations should consider gender and individualized drinking plans when formulating pronouncements regarding rehydration during exercise.

Ultraendurance Cycling in a Hot Environment: Thirst, Fluid Consumption, and Water Balance

Abstract Armstrong, LE, Johnson, EC, McKenzie, AL, Ellis, LA, and Williamson, KH. Ultraendurance cycling in a hot environment: thirst, fluid consumption, and water balance. J Strength Cond Res 29(4): 869–876, 2015—The purpose of this field investigation was to identify and clarify factors that may be used by strength and conditioning professionals to help athletes drink adequately but not excessively during endurance exercise. A universal method to accomplish this goal does not exist because the components of water balance (i.e., sweat rate, fluid consumed) are different for each athlete and endurance events differ greatly. Twenty-six male cyclists (mean ± SD; age, 41 ± 8 years; height, 177 ± 7 cm; body mass, 81.85 ± 8.95 kg) completed a summer 164-km road cycling event in 7.0 ± 2.1 hours (range, 4.5–10.4 hours). Thirst ratings, fluid consumed, indices of hydration status, and body water balance (ingested fluid volume − [urine excreted + sweat loss]) were the primary outcome variables. Measurements were taken before the event, at designated aid stations on the course (52, 97, and 136 km), and at the finish line. Body water balance during exercise was not significantly correlated with exercise time on the course, height, body mass, or body mass index. Thirst ratings were not significantly correlated with any variable. We also observed a wide range of total sweat losses (4.9–12.7 L) and total fluid intakes (2.1–10.5 L) during this ultraendurance event. Therefore, we recommend that strength and conditioning professionals develop an individualized drinking plan for each athlete, by calculating sweat rate (milliliter per hour) on the basis of body mass change (in kilograms), during field simulations of competition.

Effective body water and body mass changes during summer ultra-endurance road cycling

Abstract Because body mass change (ΔMb) does not represent all water losses and gains, the present field investigation determined if (a) ΔMb equalled the net effective body water change during ultra-endurance exercise and (b) ground speed and exercise duration influenced these variables. Thirty-two male cyclists (age range, 35–52 years) completed a 164-km event in a hot environment, were retrospectively triplet matched and placed into one of three groups based on exercise duration (4.8, 6.3, 9.6 h). Net effective body water loss was computed from measurements (body mass, total fluid intake and urine excreted) and calculations (water evolved and mass loss due to substrate oxidation, solid food mass and sweat loss), including (ΔEBWgly) and excluding (ΔEBW) water bound to glycogen. With all cyclists combined, the mean ΔMb (i.e. loss) was greater than that of ΔEBWgly by 1200 ± 200 g (P = 1.4 × 10–18), was similar to ΔEBW (difference, 0 ± 200 g; P = .21) and was strongly correlated with both (R2 = .98). Analysis of equivalence indicated that ΔMb was not equivalent to ΔEBWgly, but was equivalent to ΔEBW. Due to measurement complexity, we concluded that (a) athletes will not calculate the effective body water calculations routinely and (b) body mass change remains a useful field-expedient estimate of net effective body water change.

Blood Hemostatic Changes During an Ultraendurance Road Cycling Event in a Hot Environment

OBJECTIVE This study aims to examine blood hemostatic responses to completing a 164-km road cycling event in a hot environment. METHODS Thirty-seven subjects (28 men and 9 women; 51.8±9.5 [mean±SD] y) completed the ride in 6.6±1.1 hours. Anthropometrics (height, body mass [taken also during morning of the ride], percent body fat [%]) were collected the day before the ride. Blood samples were collected on the morning of the ride (PRE) and immediately after (IP) the subject completed the ride. Concentrations of platelet, platelet activation, coagulation, and fibrinolytic markers (platelet factor 4, β-thromboglobulin, von Willebrand factor antigen, thrombin-antithrombin complex, thrombomodulin, and D-Dimer) were measured. Associations between changes from PRE- to IP-ride were examined as a function of event completion time and subject characteristics (demographics and anthropometrics). RESULTS All blood hemostatic markers increased significantly (P < .001) from PRE to IP. After controlling for PRE values, finishing time was negatively correlated with platelet factor 4 (r = 0.40; P = .017), while percent body fat (%BF) was negatively correlated with thrombin-antithrombin complex (r = -0.35; P = .038) and to thrombomodulin (r = -0.36; P = .036). In addition, male subjects had greater concentrations of thrombin-antithrombin complex (d = 0.63; P < .05) and natural logarithm thrombomodulin (d = 6.42; P < .05) than female subjects. CONCLUSION Completing the 164-km road cycling event in hot conditions resulted in increased concentrations of platelet, platelet activation, coagulation, and fibrinolytic markers in both men and women. Although platelet activation and coagulation occurred, the fibrinolytic system markers also increased, which appears to balance blood hemostasis and may prevent clot formation during exercise in a hot environment.

Effect of Caffeine on Perceived Soreness and Functionality following an Endurance Cycling Event.

Abstract Caldwell, AR, Tucker, MA, Butts, CL, McDermott, BP, Vingren, JL, Kunces, LJ, Lee, EC, Munoz, CX, Williamson, KH, Armstrong, LE, and Ganio, MS. Effect of caffeine on perceived soreness and functionality following an endurance cycling event. J Strength Cond Res 31(3): 638–643, 2017—Caffeine can reduce muscle pain during exercise; however, the efficacy of caffeine in improving muscle soreness and recovery from a demanding long-duration exercise bout has not been established. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of caffeine intake on ratings of perceived muscle soreness (RPMS) and perceived lower extremity functionality (LEF) following the completion of a 164-km endurance cycling event. Before and after cycling RPMS (1-to-6; 6 = severe soreness) and LEF (0-to-80; 80 = full functionality) were assessed by questionnaires. Subjects ingested 3 mg/kg body mass of caffeine or placebo pills in a randomized, double-blind fashion immediately after the ride and for the next 4 mornings (i.e., ∼800 hours) and 3 afternoons (i.e., ∼1200 hours). Before each ingestion, RPMS and LEF were assessed. Afternoon ratings of LEF were greater with caffeine ingestion the first day postride (65.0 ± 6.1 vs. 72.3 ± 6.7; for placebo and caffeine, respectively; p = 0.04), but at no other time points (p > 0.05). The caffeine group tended to have lower overall RPMS in the afternoon versus placebo (i.e., main effect of group; 1.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.5 ± 0.2; p = 0.09). Afternoon RPMS for the legs was significantly lower in the caffeine group (main effect of caffeine; 1.3 ± 0.2 vs. 0.5 ± 0.3; p = 0.05). In conclusion, ingesting caffeine improved RPMS for the legs, but not LEF in the days following an endurance cycling event. Athletes may benefit from ingesting caffeine in the days following an arduous exercise bout to relieve feelings of soreness and reduced functionality.

Renal stress and kidney injury biomarkers in response to endurance cycling in the heat with and without ibuprofen

Exercise, especially in the heat, can contribute to acute kidney injury, which can expedite chronic kidney disease onset. The additional stress of ibuprofen use is hypothesized to increase renal stress. OBJECTIVES To observe the effects of endurance cycling in the heat on renal function. Secondarily, we investigated the effect of ibuprofen ingestion on kidney stress. DESIGN Randomized, placebo controlled and observational methods were utilized. METHODS Forty cyclists (52±9y, 21.7±6.5% body fat) volunteered and completed an endurance cycling event (5.7±1.2h) in the heat (33.2±5.0°C, 38.4±10.7% RH). Thirty-five participants were randomized to ingest a placebo (n=17) or 600mg ibuprofen (n=18) pre-event. A blood sample was drawn before and following the event. Serum creatinine was assessed by colorimetric assay. An ELISA was used to measure serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. Fractional excretion of sodium was calculated after urinary and serum electrolyte analyses. RESULTS Placebo versus ibuprofen groups contributed no significant difference in any variable (p>0.05). Serum creatinine significantly increased from pre- (0.52±0.14mg/dL) to post-event (0.88±0.21mg/dL; p<0.001). Serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin significantly increased (pre: 68.51±17.54ng/mL; post: 139.12±36.52ng/mL; p<0.001) and fractional excretion of sodium was significantly reduced from pre- (0.52±0.24%) to post-event (0.27±0.18%; p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Changes in renal biomarkers suggest mild acute kidney injury and reduced kidney function during a single bout of endurance cycling in the heat, without influence from moderate ibuprofen ingestion.