Kelly A. Fair

Damage-control resuscitation and emergency laparotomy: Findings from the PROPPR study.

BACKGROUND The Pragmatic Randomized Optimal Platelet and Plasma Ratios (PROPPR) trial has demonstrated that damage-control resuscitation, a massive transfusion strategy targeting a balanced delivery of plasma–platelet–red blood cell in a ratio of 1:1:1, results in improved survival at 3 hours and a reduction in deaths caused by exsanguination in the first 24 hours compared with a 1:1:2 ratio. In light of these findings, we hypothesized that patients receiving 1:1:1 ratio would have improved survival after emergency laparotomy. METHODS Severely injured patients predicted to receive a massive transfusion admitted to 12 Level I North American trauma centers were randomized to 1:1:1 versus 1:1:2 as described in the PROPPR trial. From these patients, the subset that underwent an emergency laparotomy, defined previously in the literature as laparotomy within 90 minutes of arrival, were identified. We compared rates and timing of emergency laparotomy as well as postsurgical survival at 24 hours and 30 days. RESULTS Of the 680 enrolled patients, 613 underwent a surgical procedure, 397 underwent a laparotomy, and 346 underwent an emergency laparotomy. The percentages of patients undergoing emergency laparotomy were 51.5% (174 of 338) and 50.3% (172 of 342) for 1:1:1 and 1:1:2, respectively (p = 0.20). Median time to laparotomy was 28 minutes in both treatment groups. Among patients undergoing an emergency laparotomy, the proportions of patients surviving to 24 hours and 30 days were similar between treatment arms; 24-hour survival was 86.8% (151 of 174) for 1:1:1 and 83.1% (143 of 172) for 1:1:2 (p = 0.29), and 30-day survival was 79.3% (138 of 174) for 1:1:1 and 75.0% (129 of 172) for 1:1:2 (p = 0.30). CONCLUSION We found no evidence that resuscitation strategy affects whether a patient requires an emergency laparotomy, time to laparotomy, or subsequent survival. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic study, level IV.

Thrombelastography-Based Dosing of Enoxaparin for Thromboprophylaxis in Trauma and Surgical Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance Prophylactic enoxaparin is used to prevent venous thromboembolism (VTE) in surgical and trauma patients. However, VTE remains an important source of morbidity and mortality, potentially exacerbated by antithrombin III or anti-Factor Xa deficiencies and missed enoxaparin doses. Recent data suggest that a difference in reaction time (time to initial fibrin formation) greater than 1 minute between heparinase and standard thrombelastogram (TEG) is associated with a decreased risk of VTE. Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of TEG-adjusted prophylactic enoxaparin dosing among trauma and surgical patients. Design, Setting, and Participants This randomized clinical trial, conducted from October 2012 to May 2015, compared standard dosing (30 mg twice daily) with TEG-adjusted enoxaparin dosing (35 mg twice daily) for 185 surgical and trauma patients screened for VTE at 3 level I trauma centers in the United States. Main Outcomes and Measures The incidence of VTE, bleeding complications, anti-Factor Xa deficiency, and antithrombin III deficiency. Results Of the 185 trial participants, 89 were randomized to the control group (median age, 44.0 years; 55.1% male) and 96 to the intervention group (median age, 48.5 years; 74.0% male). Patients in the intervention group received a higher median enoxaparin dose than control patients (35 mg vs 30 mg twice daily; P < .001). Anti-Factor Xa levels in intervention patients were not higher than levels in control patients until day 6 (0.4 U/mL vs 0.21 U/mL; P < .001). Only 22 patients (11.9%) achieved a difference in reaction time greater than 1 minute, which was similar between the control and intervention groups (10.4% vs 13.5%; P = .68). The time to enoxaparin initiation was similar between the control and intervention groups (median [range] days, 1.0 [0.0-2.0] vs 1.0 [1.0-2.0]; P = .39), and the number of patients who missed at least 1 dose was also similar (43 [48.3%] vs 54 [56.3%]; P = .30). Rates of VTE (6 [6.7%] vs 6 [6.3%]; P > .99) were similar, but the difference in bleeding complications (5 [5.6%] vs 13 [13.5%]; P = .08) was not statistically significant. Antithrombin III and anti-Factor Xa deficiencies and hypercoagulable TEG parameters, including elevated coagulation index (>3), maximum amplitude (>74 mm), and G value (>12.4 dynes/cm2), were prevalent in both groups. Identified risk factors for VTE included older age (61.0 years vs 46.0 years; P = .04), higher body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared; 30.6 vs 27.1; P = .03), increased Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score (8.5 vs 7.0; P = .03), and increased percentage of missed doses per patient (14.8% vs 2.5%; P = .05). Conclusions and Relevance The incidence of VTE was low and similar between groups; however, few patients achieved a difference in reaction time greater than 1 minute. Antithrombin III deficiencies and hypercoagulable TEG parameters were prevalent among patients with VTE. Low VTE incidence may be due to an early time to enoxaparin initiation and an overall healthier and less severely injured study population than previously reported. Trial Registration clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT00990236.

Moderate elevations in international normalized ratio should not lead to delays in neurosurgical intervention in patients with traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND The management of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) frequently involves invasive intracranial monitoring or cranial surgery. In our institution, intracranial procedures are often deferred until an international normalized ratio (INR) of less than 1.4 is achieved. There is no evidence that a moderately elevated INR is associated with increased risk of bleeding in patients undergoing neurosurgical intervention (NI). Thrombelastography (TEG) provides a functional assessment of clotting and has been shown to better predict clinically relevant coagulopathy compared with INR. We hypothesized that in patients with TBI, an elevated INR would result in increased time to NI and would not be associated with coagulation abnormalities based on TEG. METHODS A secondary analysis of prospectively collected data was performed in trauma patients with intracranial hemorrhage that underwent NI (defined as cranial surgery or intracranial pressure monitoring) within 24 hours of arrival. Time from admission to NI was recorded. TEG and routine coagulation assays were obtained at admission. Patients were considered hypocoagulable based on INR if their admission INR was greater than 1.4 (high INR). Manufacturer-specified values were used to determine hypocoagulability for each TEG variable. RESULTS Sixty-one patients (median head Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS] score, 5) met entry criteria, of whom 16% had high INR. Demographic, physiologic, and injury scoring data were similar between groups. The median time to NI was longer in patients with high INR (358 minutes vs. 184 minutes, p = 0.027). High-INR patients were transfused more plasma than patients with an INR of 1.4 or less (2 U vs. 0 U, p = 0.01). There was no association between an elevated INR and hypocoagulability based on TEG. CONCLUSION TBI patients with an admission INR of greater than 1.4 had a longer time to NI. The use of plasma transfusion to decrease the INR may have contributed to this delay. A moderately elevated INR was not associated with coagulation abnormalities based on TEG. Routine plasma transfusion to correct a moderately elevated INR before NI should be reexamined. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Diagnostic study, level III.

Cirrhosis increases mortality and splenectomy rates following splenic injury

BACKGROUND Cirrhosis may be a risk factor for mortality following blunt splenic injury (BSI) and it predicts the need for an operative intervention. METHODS We performed a case-control study at 3 level 1 trauma centers. Comparisons were made with chi-square test, Wilcoxon rank-sum test, and binary logistic regression, and stratified by propensity for splenectomy. Data are presented as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs). RESULTS Mortality was 27% (21/77) and cirrhosis was a strong risk factor for death (OR 8.8, 95% CI 3.7 to 21.1). Compared with controls, cirrhosis was an independent risk factor for splenectomy (OR 5.4, 95% CI 2.5 to 11.5), and only splenic injury grade was associated with splenectomy (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.3 to 3.6). Only admission model for end-stage liver disease was independently associated with mortality after an operation (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1 to 2.8). After propensity score matching, we found no association between splenectomy and mortality in cirrhotic patients. CONCLUSION Cirrhosis dramatically increases mortality and the odds of an operative intervention in BSI patients with pre-existing cirrhosis, and BSI requires vigilant attention and early intervention should be considered.

Effect of ascorbic acid concentrations on hemodynamics and inflammation following lyophilized plasma transfusion.

BACKGROUND Compared with lyophilized plasma (LP) buffered with other acids, LP with ascorbic acid (AA) attenuates systemic inflammation and DNA damage in a combat relevant polytrauma swine model. We hypothesize that increasing concentrations of AA in transfused LP will be safe, will be hemodynamically well tolerated, and will attenuate systemic inflammation following polytraumatic injury and hemorrhage in swine. METHODS This prospective, randomized, blinded study involved 52 female swine. Forty animals were subjected to our validated polytrauma model and resuscitated with LP. Baseline control sham (n = 6), operative control sham (n = 6), low-AA (n = 10), medium-AA (n = 10), high-AA (n = 10) groups, and a hydrochloric acid control (HCL, n = 10) were randomized. Hemodynamics, thrombelastography, and blood chemistries were assessed. Inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor &agr;, interleukin 6 [IL-6], C-reactive protein, and IL-10) and DNA damage were measured at baseline, 2 hours, and 4 hours after liver injury. Significance was set at p < 0.05, with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. RESULTS Hemodynamics, shock, and blood loss were similar between groups. All animals had robust procoagulant activity 2 hours following liver injury. Inflammation was similar between groups at baseline, and AA groups remained similar to HCL following liver injury. IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor &agr; were increased at 2 hours and 4 hours compared with baseline within all groups (p < 0.008). DNA damage increased at 2 hours compared with baseline in all groups (p < 0.017) and further increased at 4 hours compared with baseline in HCL, low-, and high-AA groups (p < 0.005). C-reactive protein was similar between and within groups. IL-10 increased at 2 hours compared with baseline in low- and high-AA groups and remained elevated at 4 hours compared with baseline in the low-AA group (all, p < 0.017). CONCLUSION Concentrations of AA were well tolerated and did not diminish the procoagulant activity of LP. Within our tested range of concentrations, AA can safely be used to buffer LP.

The Impact of Pre-Hospital Administration of Lactated Ringer's Solution versus Normal Saline in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury

Lactated Ringers (LR) and normal saline (NS) are both used for resuscitation of injured patients. NS has been associated with increased resuscitation volume, blood loss, acidosis, and coagulopathy compared with LR. We sought to determine if pre-hospital LR is associated with improved outcome compared with NS in patients with and without traumatic brain injury (TBI). We included patients receiving pre-hospital LR or NS from the PRospective Observational Multicenter Major Trauma Transfusion (PROMMTT) study. Patients with TBI (Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS] head ≥3) and without TBI (AIS head ≤2) were compared. Cox proportional hazards models including Injury Severity Score (ISS), AIS head, AIS extremity, age, fluids, intubation status, and hospital site were generated for prediction of mortality. Linear regression models were generated for prediction of red blood cell (RBC) and crystalloid requirement, and admission biochemical/physiological parameters. Seven hundred ninety-one patients received either LR (n = 117) or NS (n = 674). Median ISS, AIS head, AIS extremity, and pre-hospital fluid volume were higher in TBI and non-TBI patients receiving LR compared with NS (p < 0.01). In patients with TBI (n = 308), LR was associated with higher adjusted mortality compared with NS (hazard rate [HR] = 1.78, confidence interval [CI] 1.04-3.04, p = 0.035). In patients without TBI (n = 483), no difference in mortality was demonstrated (HR = 1.49, CI 0.757-2.95, p = 0.247). Fluid type had no effect on admission biochemical or physiological parameters, 6-hour RBC, or crystalloid requirement in either group. LR was associated with increased mortality compared with NS in patients with TBI. These results underscore the need for a prospective randomized trial comparing pre-hospital LR with NS in patients with TBI.

A Disease-Specific Hybrid Rotation Increases Opportunities for Deliberate Practice

IMPORTANCE Incorporating deliberate practice (DP) into residency curricula may optimize education. DP includes educationally protected time, continuous expert feedback, and a focus on a limited number of technical skills. It is strongly associated with mastery level learning. OBJECTIVE Determine if a multidisciplinary breast rotation (MDB) increases DP opportunities. DESIGN Beginning in 2010, interns completed the 4-week MDB. Three days a week were spent in surgery and surgical clinic. Half-days were in breast radiology, pathology, medical oncology, and didactics. The MDB was retrospectively compared with a traditional community rotation (TCR) and a university surgical oncology service (USOS) using rotation feedback and resident operative volume. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. SETTING Oregon Health and Science University in Portland, Oregon; an academic tertiary care general surgery residency program. PARTICIPANTS General surgery residents at Oregon Health and Science University participating in either the MDB, TCR or USOS. RESULTS A total of 31 interns rated the opportunity to perform procedures significantly higher for MDB than TCR or USOS (4.6 ± 0.6 vs 4.2 ± 0.9 and 4.1 ± 1.0, p < 0.05). MDB was rated higher than TCR on quality of faculty teaching and educational materials (4.5 ± 0.7 vs 4.1 ± 0.9 and 4.0 ± 1.2 vs 3.5 ± 1.0, p < 0.05). Interns operated more on the MDB than on the USOS and were more focused on breast resections, lymph node dissections, and port placements than on the traditional surgical rotation or USOS. CONCLUSIONS The MDB incorporates multidisciplinary care into a unique, disease-specific, and educationally focused rotation. It is highly rated and affords a greater opportunity for DP than either the USOS or TCR. DP is strongly associated with mastery learning and this novel rotation structure could maximize intern education in the era of limited work hours.

Adaptation of Military Damage Control in Civilian Settings

Damage control techniques originated during battlefield experience millennia ago. In the early twentieth century, damage control was utilized to limit hemorrhage from liver injuries. Since then damage control has evolved to include damage control surgery and damage control resuscitation in the military setting, which has been translated and integrated into civilian trauma and emergency general surgery practice. Application of damage control techniques in the military and civilian settings has been studied extensively. Damage control resuscitation in particular has made rapid and marked progress in the past 20 years. Hemostatic resuscitation became common practice in the military during modern Iraq and Afghanistan conflict. This led to application and study in the civilian setting. Differences between military and civilian settings include austere military environments, limited resources, and complex evacuation requirements. Future application of damage control in the civilian setting requires integration and collaboration between the military and civilian sectors.

Confidentiality Concerns for Surgical Residents as Educational Research Subjects

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES • Research within the field of surgical education has been expanding rapidly in order to guide future curricula. • Educational studies often require minimal IRB oversight. • Concern regarding issues of informed consent and use of educational data for alternative purposes. • Our aim of this study was to assess the concerns regarding residents as research subjects within surgical education research.