Kelvin J. Richards

The formation of ripples and dunes on an erodible bed

A two-dimensional stability analysis is presented of flow of low Froude number over an erodible bed. Particular regard is given to the modelling of the turbulent flow close to the bed. In contrast to previous theories that use a constant eddy-viscosity approach the present theory predicts the occurrence of two separate modes of instability, with wavelengths related to the roughness of the bed and the depth of the flow. It is postulated that these two modes correspond to the formation of ripples and dunes respectively. The results are strongly dependent on the two parameters z 0, the roughness length of the bed, and β, the effect of the local bed slope on the bed-load transport. Using physically plausible estimates for these parameters the results of the analysis are in good agreement with observations for both ripples and dunes.

Mechanisms for vertical nutrient transport within a North Atlantic mesoscale eddy

Abstract Prompted by observational evidence for an enhanced source of surface nutrients within an anticyclonic eddy in the NE Atlantic, we investigate vertical transport processes that may produce such a phenomenon. For the eddy investigated, the dominant mechanism is found to be ageostrophic circulation resulting from a perturbation of the circular flow of the eddy. This can produce upwelling velocities of order 10 m d −1 . Ekman pumping due to wind stress on the eddy also produces upwelling within, but on a smaller scale of ∼0.5 m d −1 . There is no evidence that self-propagation of the eddy leads to an enhanced nutrient flux by displacement upwards of nutrient-laden deeper isopycnals over the core of the eddy. Deeper winter mixing within the eddy relative to the surroundings, however, may contribute to the elevated nutrient levels.

A Regional Ocean–Atmosphere Model for Eastern Pacific Climate: Toward Reducing Tropical Biases*

Abstract The tropical Pacific Ocean is a climatically important region, home to El Nino and the Southern Oscillation. The simulation of its climate remains a challenge for global coupled ocean–atmosphere models, which suffer large biases especially in reproducing the observed meridional asymmetry across the equator in sea surface temperature (SST) and rainfall. A basin ocean general circulation model is coupled with a full-physics regional atmospheric model to study eastern Pacific climate processes. The regional ocean–atmosphere model (ROAM) reproduces salient features of eastern Pacific climate, including a northward-displaced intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) collocated with a zonal band of high SST, a low-cloud deck in the southeastern tropical Pacific, the equatorial cold tongue, and its annual cycle. The simulated low-cloud deck experiences significant seasonal variations in vertical structure and cloudiness; cloud becomes decoupled and separated from the surface mixed layer by a stable layer in...

Flow and mixing in the rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

High levels of diapycnal mixing and geothermal heating near midocean ridges contribute to the buoyancy fluxes that are required to close the global circulation. In topographically confined areas, such as the deep median valleys of slow-spreading ridges, these fluxes strongly influence the local hydrography and dynamics. Data from a segment-scale hydrographic survey of the rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and from an array of current meters deployed there during an entire year are analyzed in order to characterize the dominant hydrographic patterns and dynamical processes. Comparison with historic hydrographic data indicates that the temporal variability during the last few decades has been small compared to the observed segment-scale gradients. The rift valley circulation is characterized by inflow from the eastern ridge flank and persistent unidirectional alongsegment flow into a cul-de-sac. Therefore, most of the water flowing along the rift valley upwells within the segment with a mean vertical velocity .1025 ms 21. The observed streamwise hydrographic gradients indicate that diapycnal mixing dominates the rift valley buoyancy fluxes by more than an order of magnitude, in spite of the presence of a large hydrothermal vent field supplying several gigawatts of heat to the water column. Hydrographic budgets in the rift valley yield diffusivity values of order 5 3 1023 m2 s 21, consistent with estimates derived from statically unstable overturns, the largest of which were observed downstream of topographic obstacles in the path of the along-segment flow. This suggests vertical shear associated with cross-sill flows as the dominant contributor to the mechanical mixing in the rift valley.

A Lagrangian SF6 tracer study of an anticyclonic eddy in the North Atlantic: patch evolution vertical mixing and nutrient supply to the mixed layer

Biological and biogeochemical change in the surface mixed layer of an anticyclonic eddy at 60°N in the North Atlantic were monitored within a Lagrangian time-series study using the tracer sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Four ARGOS buoys initially released at the patch centre remained closely associated with the SF6 patch over a 10-day period, with the near-circular eddy streamlines contributing to the stability and coherence of the patch. Progressive deepening of the surface mixed layer was temporarily interrupted by a storm, which increased mixed-layer nitrate and accelerated the transfer of SF6 to the atmosphere. Diapycnal exchange of SF6 was relatively rapid due to the shallow pycnocline gradient, and a vertical eddy diffusivity (Kz) of 1.95 cm2 s?1 at the base of the mixed layer was estimated from vertical SF6 profiles at the patch centre. Application of Kz to the nutrient gradients inferred vertical nitrate and phosphate fluxes of 1.8 and 1.25 mmol m?2 d?1, respectively, for the pre-storm period, which accounted for 33% and 20% of the reported in vivo uptake rates. Integration of the vertical nitrate flux and decline in surface layer nitrate suggest a total loss of 0.54 mmol N m?3 d?1 during the 5-day pre-storm period, of which in vivo nitrate consumption only accounted for 49%. Vertical transport of ammonium regenerated in the pycnocline accounted for up to 25% of in vivo phytoplankton uptake. The results suggest that the contribution of vertical turbulence to the mixed-layer nutrient pool was less important than that recorded in other regions of the open ocean, inferring that advective processes are more significant in an eddy. This study also emphasises the potential of SF6 for oceanic Lagrangian time series studies, particularly in dynamic regions, and in constraining estimates of new production.

The Southwest Pacific Ocean circulation and climate experiment (SPICE)

The Southwest Pacific Ocean Circulation and Climate Experiment (SPICE) is an international research program under the auspices of CLIVAR. The key objectives are to understand the Southwest Pacific Ocean circulation and the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ) dynamics, as well as their influence on regional and basin-scale climate patterns. South Pacific thermocline waters are transported in the westward flowing South Equatorial Current (SEC) toward Australia and Papua-New Guinea. On its way, the SEC encounters the numerous islands and straits of the Southwest Pacific and forms boundary currents and jets that eventually redistribute water to the equator and high latitudes. The transit in the Coral, Solomon, and Tasman Seas is of great importance to the climate system because changes in either the temperature or the amount of water arriving at the equator have the capability to modulate the El Nino-Southern Oscillation, while the southward transports influence the climate and biodiversity in the Tasman Sea. After 7 years of substantial in situ oceanic observational and modeling efforts, our understanding of the region has much improved. We have a refined description of the SPCZ behavior, boundary currents, pathways, and water mass transformation, including the previously undocumented Solomon Sea. The transports are large and vary substantially in a counter-intuitive way, with asymmetries and gating effects that depend on time scales. This paper provides a review of recent advancements and discusses our current knowledge gaps and important emerging research directions.

A numerical model of mesoscale frontal instabilities and plankton dynamics - I. Model formulation and initial experiments

Previous observational and modelling studies of open ocean frontal regions have found large vertical velocities associated with instabilities on the frontal jet. A combined physical/ecosystem numerical model is used to investigate the impact of jet instability and the associated vertical motions on the local ecosystem. The evolution of the instability of a mesoscale frontal jet gives rise to vertical transport of nutrients into the euphotic zone and subduction of biota out of the euphotic zone. The upwelling of nutrients stimulates increases in primary production, with resulting increases in phytoplankton stocks. The reaction of the ecosystem is found to be dependent on the physical characteristics of the front, but the increase in primary production can be locally of the order of 100%, and of the order of 10% when averaged over the frontal region. The action of upwelling and subduction introduces spatial heterogeneity in primary production and plankton biomass. The heterogeneity is at a variety of length scales, from the order of a few kilometres for thin filaments and up to 50 km for coherent features. With increases in new production occurring over several degrees of latitude, frontal dynamics may make a significant contribution to the strength of the biological pump.

The Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Abstract The dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) in a near-eddy-resolving model of the Southern Ocean (FRAM) are investigated. A streamwise coordinate system is used, rather than a more conventional approach of considering zonally averaged quantities. The motivation for this approach is the large deviation from a purely zonal flow made by the current. Comparisons are made with a zonal-mean analysis of the same model. It is found that the topographic form drag is the main sink of the momentum that is input by the wind. However, in contrast to a zonal-mean analysis other terms, namely, horizontal mixing, bottom friction, and advection of momentum, are no longer negligible. The total effect of transient eddies is to produce a drag on the mean flow, again in contrast to the zonally averaged case. The vertical penetration of stress is considered. A generalized formula is derived for the interfacial form stress averaged along a convoluted path and that includes nonquasigeostrophic effects. The i...

Oceanic thermohaline intrusions: observations

Intrusions are commonly observed in the upper, deep and coastal oceans, and are closely linked to lateral fluxes of heat, salt and momentum. This is a review of observations of intrusions and the results of comparisons of properties such as scale, slopes, microstructure activity, and fluxes with theoretical models. A summary of estimates of lateral heat fluxes indicates a wide range of lateral diffusivities. We conclude by noting that our present knowledge is insufficient to predict the structure, length-scales and lateral fluxes of thermohaline intrusions with confidence, and list a number of unresolved questions. Suggestions are made for compilation of existing data into a database for exploratory analysis and testing of theoretical hypotheses. An outline is given of a potential collaborative field experiment using CTD, fluorescent dye, and microstructure observations.

The BOFS 1990 spring bloom experiment: Temporal evolution and spatial variability of the hydrographic field

Abstract The overall background to the U.K. BOFS (Biogeochemical Ocean Flux Study) Project, designed to investigate oceanic carbon flux processes throughout the water column, is briefly described together with the strategy for the 1990 BOFS Spring Bloom Experiment. The Experiment involved two ships and was carried out in the northeast Atlantic between 46–50°N, 14–22°W in the period 18 April – 25 June 1990 with the objective of monitoring and quantifying the major carbon flux changes associated with the succession of the spring bloom. Sampling was carried out over a 7 week period adjacent to a Lagrangian buoy drogued at 30m. The spatial fields of the major variables were characterized from box grid surveys around the position of the marker drogue at the beginning and end of the time series observations with the time series hydrographical changes being related to features observed in the spatial surveys. The hydrographical and core biological observations made in the Experiment are described and interpreted. The reference drogue was deployed within an anticyclonic eddy in which initially there was little evidence of seasonal thermocline or phytoplankton develooment. The majority of an array of 30m drogues placed around the reference drogue drifted between 75–150km north and east of their origin, probably exiting from the original eddy system after the first 6 days of deployment. The reference drogue moved anticyclonically around the eddy centre for the first 13 days before exiting from the eddy system and becoming entrained in a discontinuity zone located between discrete warmer and cooler water bodies defined between 50–200m. During this latter period, which continued through to the end of the Experiment, the drogue tracked SE overall and alternately grazed the margins of the two water bodies with greater drift speeds being associated with the influence of the cooler water. Phytoplankton development proceeded slowly over the period that the drogue remained in the original eddy and paralleled the gradual development of the seasonal thermocline. A marked increase in phytoplankton occurred concurrently with the exit of the buoy from the eddy system into the boundary region of the cooler water where increased stratification prevailed. The phytoplankton increase persisted for only 6 days and declined sharply, primarily owing to advective influences, as the buoy moved away from the cool water influence with chlorophyll values remaining low for the remainder of the Experiment. Mesoscale influences were observed to have a major influence on the development sequence of the spring bloom in this area of the northeast Atlantic.