Ken Hodge

Enhancing youth development through sport.

Abstract It is commonly believed that through sports, children and adolescents learn values and skills that will serve them well as they prepare for the rest of their lives. Unfortunately, many youth sport programs are neither properly structured nor implemented in a manner that these life skills can be learned in sport and later transferred to other life domains. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of positive youth development, to describe the role sport can play in preparing youth to learn essential “life lessons,” to discuss why so few programs achieve this goal, and to provide examples of several sport-based programs designed to achieve these goals. In addition, various issues relating to the design, implementation and evaluation of these programs and future sport programs are discussed.

Athlete burnout in elite sport: A self-determination perspective

Abstract Using self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) as the theoretical framework, we examined potential antecedents of athlete burnout in 201 elite Canadian athletes (121 females, 80 males; mean age 22.9 years). Employing a cross-sectional design, our primary aims were to investigate the relationships between behavioural regulations and athlete burnout and to examine whether self-determined motivation mediated relationships between basic needs satisfaction and athlete burnout. Our self-determination theory-derived hypotheses were largely supported. Relationships among athlete burnout and behavioural regulations mostly varied according to their rank on the self-determination continuum, with less self-determined motives showing positive associations and more self-determined motives showing negative correlations with burnout. The basic needs of competence and autonomy, plus self-determined motivation, accounted for significant amounts of variance in athlete burnout symptoms (exhaustion, R 2 = 0.31; devaluation, R 2 = 0.49; reduced accomplishment, R 2 = 0.61; global burnout, R 2 = 0.74). Self-determined motivation fully mediated the relationships that competence and autonomy had with exhaustion. Analyses showed indirect relationships between these two needs and devaluation, through their associations with self-determined motivation. Motivation partially mediated the needs-reduced sense of accomplishment relationships, but the direct effects were more prominent than the indirect effects.

Developing a Conceptual Framework for Life Skills Interventions

The purpose of the article is to outline a comprehensive conceptual framework for life skills interventions by integrating aspects of Basic Needs Theory (BNT) and Life Development Intervention (LDI). In particular, we advocate the integration of (a) the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and (b) the needs-supportive motivationalclimate from BNT with the LDI framework. When these basic psychological needs are satisfied, people experience positive psychological development and optimal psychological well-being—the stated outcome goals of most life skills programs. Without the development of a conceptual framework, it is difficult to determine whether individual life skills interventions achieve optimal psychological well-being. By developing this framework, we seek to identify and articulate the key underlying psychological mechanisms (i.e., basic needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) that contribute to optimal human functioning and positive psychosocial development in all life skill programs. The implications for counseling psychologists’ research and practice are also considered.

Temporal Ordering of Motivational Quality and Athlete Burnout in Elite Sport

INTRODUCTION Using self-determination theory as the theoretical framework, we conducted a longitudinal investigation of the relationships between motivation and athlete burnout. We tested four hypotheses: H0: low self-determination (SD) does not precede burnout, and burnout does not precede low SD; H1: low SD precedes burnout; H2: burnout precedes low SD; and H3: burnout and motivation have a reciprocal relationship. METHODS We used a two-wave design, with the follow-up assessment 4 months after baseline. Elite New Zealand athletes (n=119, mean age=24.74 yr (standard deviation=8.54 yr); 57.14% of whom were females) completed the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and the Behavioral Regulation in Sport Questionnaire. Structural equation modeling of cross-lagged panel models was used to test the hypotheses. RESULTS The relationship between motivation and burnout varied depending on the type of motivation assessed. Analyses related to overall levels of self-determined motivation, amotivation, and controlled forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H1: low SD precedes burnout. When compared with external regulation, introjected regulation seemed to be a clearer antecedent of athlete burnout. Analyses related to the self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation provided support for H2: burnout precedes low SD. The only analyses in which the null hypothesis could not be rejected were those relating to intrinsic motivation. Finally, there was little support for a reciprocal effects model. CONCLUSIONS Low levels of self-determination may lead to increases in athlete burnout, whereas athlete burnout may precede decrements in self-determined extrinsic motivation. Particular efforts could be made to help support the basic psychological needs of athletes with controlled forms of motivation, thereby leading to an internalization of motivation and decreased risk of burnout.

Expanding the flow model in adventure activities: a reversal theory perspective.

Abstract This study integrated flow theory and reversal theory perspectives to investigate a potential range of flow states amongst adventure participants in a sequence of two studies. Study one was conducted with expert (n = 6) adventure participants via retrospective interviews, while study two collected prospective data from novice whitewater riversurfers (n = 10) via waterproof-surveys and head-mounted video cameras. These methods were used to evaluate previous conjectures that distinct ‘serious’ (telic) and ‘playful’ (paratelic) flow states may occur in adventure activities and to identify key characteristics which may underpin distinct flow states. Results highlighted qualitative differences amongst flow states, as well as suggesting that flow research in adventurous pursuits could benefit from the integration of reversal theory constructs.

Antisocial and Prosocial Behavior in Sport: The Role of Motivational Climate, Basic Psychological Needs, and Moral Disengagement

The purpose of this investigation was to examine whether the relationships between contextual factors and basic psychological needs were related to antisocial and prosocial behavior in sport. A two-study project employing Bayesian path analysis was conducted with competitive athletes (Study 1, n = 291; Study 2, n = 272). Coach and teammate autonomy-supportive climates had meaningful direct relations with need satisfaction and prosocial behavior. Coach and teammate controlling climates had meaningful direct relations with antisocial behavior. Need satisfaction was both directly and indirectly related with both prosocial and antisocial behavior, whereas moral disengagement was directly and indirectly related with antisocial behavior. Overall, these findings reflected substantial evidence from the literature on self-determination theory that autonomy-supportive motivational climates are important environmental influences for need satisfaction, and are important correlates of prosocial behavior in sport, whereas controlling coach and teammate climates, along with moral disengagement, were important correlates of antisocial behavior in sport.

The Multiphasic and Dynamic Nature of Flow in Adventure Experiences

Abstract This study evaluated phases of adventure experiences by identifying flow and reversal theory states over a 3-day white-water river surfing course. Data were collected with novice river surfers (n = 5) via in-depth qualitative interviews using head-mounted video cameras. Findings suggested that “opposing” experiential phases (i.e., telic and paratelic) may be symbiotic in adventure experiences and may facilitate flow experiences. These results may account for the dynamic nature of enjoyment, flow, and motivational states within adventure experiences. Future research should seek to validate the phasic models presented herein and evaluate their potential applicability to other adventurous activities.

COPING SKILLS: ROLE OF TRAIT SPORT CONFIDENCE AND TRAIT ANXIETY

The current research assesses relationships among coping skills, trait sport confidence, and trait anxiety. Two samples (n = 47 and n = 77) of international competitors from surf life saving (M = 23.7 yr.) and touch rugby (M = 26.2 yr.) completed the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, Trait Sport Confidence Inventory, and Sport Anxiety Scale. Analysis yielded significant correlations amongst trait anxiety, sport confidence, and coping. Specifically confidence scores were positively associated with coping with adversity scores and anxiety scores were negatively associated. These findings support the inclusion of the personality characteristics of confidence and anxiety within the coping model presented by Hardy, Jones, and Gould, Researchers should be aware that confidence and anxiety may influence the coping processes of athletes.

Responses to sudden cold-water immersion in inexperienced swimmers following training.

BACKGROUND When suddenly immersed in cold water, humans typically exhibit the cold shock response, although training can attenuate hyperventilation. This study extends previous findings by considering the influence of physical activity to maintain buoyancy and subsequent swimming performance. METHODS Six inexperienced swimmers (three men and three women; mean age 22.8) received 1 wk of cold-water head-out immersions (10 x 3 min at 15 degrees C) alongside mental skills training to improve their treading water technique and to control hyperventilation upon immersion. Six inexperienced control swimmers (four men and two women; mean age 21.8) received immersions in temperate water (27 degrees C). Ventilation, brain blood flow velocity, and blood oxygenation were measured during a physiological test in which participants trod water for 150 s. In a subsequent simulated survival test, performance (swimming duration and distance) and perception of effort were recorded. All the tests were in 10 degrees C water with the head out. RESULTS There were significant improvements in the intervention groups ability to suppress rapid increases in respiratory frequency; 62 +/- 24 breaths x min(-1) to 33 +/- 12. The drop in brain blood flow was smaller and more transient than that previously reported due to the hypertensive response associated with treading water. DISCUSSION Inexperienced swimmers could benefit from cold-water habituation combined with mental skills training in order to improve voluntary control over the respiratory portion of the cold shock response as part of learning to tread water. This may improve survival prospects in a real-life emergency scenario such as an overturned boat.

Sport Psychology Consulting Effectiveness: The Sport Psychology Consultant's Perspective

The aim of this study was to examine sport psychology consultants’ (SPCs) perceptions of the influence of SPC characteristics on consultant effectiveness, while determining the conditions necessary for establishing an effective consulting relationship. Thirteen accredited SPCs participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic content analysis identified three characteristics of SPC effectiveness: (a) build a connection with the athlete to create positive change, (b) build a professional consulting relationship with athlete, and (c) consulting relationship meets athletes’ needs. Two aspects emerged as essential for an effective consulting relationship: (a) athlete is an active participant, and (b) SPC awareness of client boundaries of confidentiality.