Kenneth A. Younge

The Value of Employee Retention: Evidence From a Natural Experiment

We estimate the firm-level returns to retaining employees using difference-in-differences analysis and a natural experiment where the enforcement of employee noncompete agreements was inadvertently reversed in Michigan. We find that noncompete enforcement boosted the short-term value of publicly traded companies by approximately 9%. The effect is increasing in local competition and growth opportunities, and offset by patenting.

Clean Energy Innovation: Sources of Technical and Commercial Breakthroughs

Low-carbon energy innovation is essential to combat climate change, promote economic competitiveness, and achieve energy security. Using U.S. patent data and additional patent-relevant data collected from the Internet, we map the landscape of low-carbon energy innovation in the United States since 1975. We isolate 10,603 renewable and 10,442 traditional energy patents and develop a database that characterizes proxy measures for technical and commercial impact, as measured by patent citations and Web presence, respectively. Regression models and multivariate simulations are used to compare the social, institutional, and geographic drivers of breakthrough clean energy innovation. Results indicate statistically significant effects of social, institutional, and geographic variables on technical and commercial impacts of patents and unique innovation trends between different energy technologies. We observe important differences between patent citations and Web presence of licensed and unlicensed patents, indicating the potential utility of using screened Web hits as a measure of commercial importance. We offer hypotheses for these revealed differences and suggest a research agenda with which to test these hypotheses. These preliminary findings indicate that leveraging empirical insights to better target research expenditures would augment the speed and scale of innovation and deployment of clean energy technologies.

Patent Citations Reexamined: New Data and Methods

Many studies rely on patent citations to measure intellectual heritage and impact. In this article, we show that the nature of patent citations has changed dramatically in recent years. Today, a small minority of patent applications are generating a large majority of patent citations, and the mean technological similarity between citing and cited patents has fallen considerably. We replicate several well-known studies in industrial organization and innovation economics and demonstrate how generalized assumptions about the nature of patent citations have misled the field.@ @ a「ウエイ。」エ eクゥウエゥョァ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@ッヲ@ゥョョッカ。エゥッョ@ッヲエ・ョ@イ・ャケ@ッョ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@エッ@ゥョ、ゥ」。エ・@ゥョエ・ャャ・」エオ。ャ@ャゥョ・。ァ・@。ョ、@ゥュー。」エN@w・ ウィッキ@エィ。エ@エィ・@、。エ。@ァ・ョ・イ。エゥョァ@ーイッ」・ウウ@ヲッイ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ィ。ウ@」ィ。ョァ・、@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ウゥョ」・@」ゥエ。エゥッョM「。ウ・、 ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@キ・イ・@ッイゥァゥョ。ャャケ@カ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@tッ、。ケL@ヲ。イ@ュッイ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@。イ・@」イ・。エ・、@ー・イ@ー。エ・ョエL@。ョ、@エィ・@ュ・。ョ エ・」ィョッャッァゥ」。ャ@ウゥュゥャ。イゥエケ@「・エキ・・ョ@」ゥエゥョァ@。ョ、@」ゥエ・、@ー。エ・ョエウ@ィ。ウ@ヲ。ャャ・ョ@ウゥァョゥヲゥ」。ョエャケN@tィ・ウ・@」ィ。ョァ・ウ@ウオァァ・ウエ@エィ。エ@エィ・ オウ・@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ヲッイ@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@ョ・・、ウ@エッ@「・@イ・Mカ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@w・@、・カ・ャッー@。@ョッカ・ャ@カ・」エッイ@ウー。」・@ュッ、・ャ@エッ ・ク。ュゥョ・@エィ・@ゥョヲッイュ。エゥッョ@」ッョエ・ョエ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウL@。ョ、@ウィッキ@エィ。エ@ュ・エィッ、ウ@ヲッイ@ウオ「Mウ・エエゥョァ@。ョ、Oッイ@キ・ゥァィエゥョァ ゥョヲッイュ。エゥカ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@」。ョ@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ゥューイッカ・@エィ・@ーイ・、ゥ」エゥカ・@ーッキ・イ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウN@w・@ュ。ォ・ 、。エ。@ヲッイ@。@「。ウゥ」@」ッイイ・」エゥッョ@。カ。ゥャ。「ャ・@ヲッイ@ヲオエオイ・@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@エィイッオァィ@エィ・@p。エ・ョエ@r・ウ・。イ」ィ@fッオョ、。エゥッョN

Patent-to-Patent Similarity: A Vector Space Model

Current measures of patent similarity rely on the manual classification of patents into taxonomies. In this project, we leverage information retrieval theory and Big Data methods to develop a machine-automated measure of patent-to-patent similarity. We validate the measure and demonstrate that it significantly improves upon existing patent classification systems. Moreover, we illustrate how a pairwise similarity comparison of any and every two patents in the USPTO patent space can open new avenues of research in economics, management, and public policy. We make the data available for future scholarship through the Patent Research Foundation.

Patent Citations: An Examination of the Data Generating Process

Many studies rely on patent citations to measure intellectual heritage and impact. In this article, we show that the nature of patent citations has changed dramatically in recent years. Today, a small minority of patent applications are generating a large majority of patent citations, and the mean technological similarity between citing and cited patents has fallen considerably. We replicate several well-known studies in industrial organization and innovation economics and demonstrate how generalized assumptions about the nature of patent citations have misled the field.@ @ a「ウエイ。」エ eクゥウエゥョァ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@ッヲ@ゥョョッカ。エゥッョ@ッヲエ・ョ@イ・ャケ@ッョ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@エッ@ゥョ、ゥ」。エ・@ゥョエ・ャャ・」エオ。ャ@ャゥョ・。ァ・@。ョ、@ゥュー。」エN@w・ ウィッキ@エィ。エ@エィ・@、。エ。@ァ・ョ・イ。エゥョァ@ーイッ」・ウウ@ヲッイ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ィ。ウ@」ィ。ョァ・、@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ウゥョ」・@」ゥエ。エゥッョM「。ウ・、 ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@キ・イ・@ッイゥァゥョ。ャャケ@カ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@tッ、。ケL@ヲ。イ@ュッイ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@。イ・@」イ・。エ・、@ー・イ@ー。エ・ョエL@。ョ、@エィ・@ュ・。ョ エ・」ィョッャッァゥ」。ャ@ウゥュゥャ。イゥエケ@「・エキ・・ョ@」ゥエゥョァ@。ョ、@」ゥエ・、@ー。エ・ョエウ@ィ。ウ@ヲ。ャャ・ョ@ウゥァョゥヲゥ」。ョエャケN@tィ・ウ・@」ィ。ョァ・ウ@ウオァァ・ウエ@エィ。エ@エィ・ オウ・@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ヲッイ@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@ョ・・、ウ@エッ@「・@イ・Mカ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@w・@、・カ・ャッー@。@ョッカ・ャ@カ・」エッイ@ウー。」・@ュッ、・ャ@エッ ・ク。ュゥョ・@エィ・@ゥョヲッイュ。エゥッョ@」ッョエ・ョエ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウL@。ョ、@ウィッキ@エィ。エ@ュ・エィッ、ウ@ヲッイ@ウオ「Mウ・エエゥョァ@。ョ、Oッイ@キ・ゥァィエゥョァ ゥョヲッイュ。エゥカ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@」。ョ@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ゥューイッカ・@エィ・@ーイ・、ゥ」エゥカ・@ーッキ・イ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウN@w・@ュ。ォ・ 、。エ。@ヲッイ@。@「。ウゥ」@」ッイイ・」エゥッョ@。カ。ゥャ。「ャ・@ヲッイ@ヲオエオイ・@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@エィイッオァィ@エィ・@p。エ・ョエ@r・ウ・。イ」ィ@fッオョ、。エゥッョN

Patent Citations Reexamined

Many studies rely on patent citations to measure intellectual heritage and impact. In this article, we show that the nature of patent citations has changed dramatically in recent years. Today, a small minority of patent applications are generating a large majority of patent citations, and the mean technological similarity between citing and cited patents has fallen considerably. We replicate several well-known studies in industrial organization and innovation economics and demonstrate how generalized assumptions about the nature of patent citations have misled the field.@ @ a「ウエイ。」エ eクゥウエゥョァ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@ッヲ@ゥョョッカ。エゥッョ@ッヲエ・ョ@イ・ャケ@ッョ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@エッ@ゥョ、ゥ」。エ・@ゥョエ・ャャ・」エオ。ャ@ャゥョ・。ァ・@。ョ、@ゥュー。」エN@w・ ウィッキ@エィ。エ@エィ・@、。エ。@ァ・ョ・イ。エゥョァ@ーイッ」・ウウ@ヲッイ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ィ。ウ@」ィ。ョァ・、@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ウゥョ」・@」ゥエ。エゥッョM「。ウ・、 ュ・。ウオイ・ウ@キ・イ・@ッイゥァゥョ。ャャケ@カ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@tッ、。ケL@ヲ。イ@ュッイ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@。イ・@」イ・。エ・、@ー・イ@ー。エ・ョエL@。ョ、@エィ・@ュ・。ョ エ・」ィョッャッァゥ」。ャ@ウゥュゥャ。イゥエケ@「・エキ・・ョ@」ゥエゥョァ@。ョ、@」ゥエ・、@ー。エ・ョエウ@ィ。ウ@ヲ。ャャ・ョ@ウゥァョゥヲゥ」。ョエャケN@tィ・ウ・@」ィ。ョァ・ウ@ウオァァ・ウエ@エィ。エ@エィ・ オウ・@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@ヲッイ@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@ョ・・、ウ@エッ@「・@イ・Mカ。ャゥ、。エ・、N@w・@、・カ・ャッー@。@ョッカ・ャ@カ・」エッイ@ウー。」・@ュッ、・ャ@エッ ・ク。ュゥョ・@エィ・@ゥョヲッイュ。エゥッョ@」ッョエ・ョエ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョウL@。ョ、@ウィッキ@エィ。エ@ュ・エィッ、ウ@ヲッイ@ウオ「Mウ・エエゥョァ@。ョ、Oッイ@キ・ゥァィエゥョァ ゥョヲッイュ。エゥカ・@」ゥエ。エゥッョウ@」。ョ@ウオ「ウエ。ョエゥ。ャャケ@ゥューイッカ・@エィ・@ーイ・、ゥ」エゥカ・@ーッキ・イ@ッヲ@ー。エ・ョエ@」ゥエ。エゥッョ@ュ・。ウオイ・ウN@w・@ュ。ォ・ 、。エ。@ヲッイ@。@「。ウゥ」@」ッイイ・」エゥッョ@。カ。ゥャ。「ャ・@ヲッイ@ヲオエオイ・@ウ」ィッャ。イウィゥー@エィイッオァィ@エィ・@p。エ・ョエ@r・ウ・。イ」ィ@fッオョ、。エゥッョN