Kenneth K. C. Lee

Real-time speckle variance swept-source optical coherence tomography using a graphics processing unit

Abstract: Advances in swept source laser technology continues to increase the imaging speed of swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) systems. These fast imaging speeds are ideal for microvascular detection schemes, such as speckle variance (SV), where interframe motion can cause severe imaging artifacts and loss of vascular contrast. However, full utilization of the laser scan speed has been hindered by the computationally intensive signal processing required by SS-OCT and SV calculations. Using a commercial graphics processing unit that has been optimized for parallel data processing, we report a complete high-speed SS-OCT platform capable of real-time data acquisition, processing, display, and saving at 108,000 lines per second. Subpixel image registration of structural images was performed in real-time prior to SV calculations in order to reduce decorrelation from stationary structures induced by the bulk tissue motion. The viability of the system was successfully demonstrated in a high bulk tissue motion scenario of human fingernail root imaging where SV images (512 × 512 pixels, n = 4) were displayed at 54 frames per second.

Temperature-compensated fiber-optic 3D shape sensor based on femtosecond laser direct-written Bragg grating waveguides

Temperature-compensated 3D fiber shape sensing is demonstrated with femtosecond laser direct-written optical and Bragg grating waveguides that were distributed axially and radially inside a single coreless optical fiber. Efficient light coupling between the laser-written optical circuit elements and a standard single-mode fiber (SMF) was obtained for the first time by 3D laser writing of a 1 × 3 directional coupler to meet with the core waveguide in the fusion-spliced SMF. Simultaneous interrogation of nine Bragg gratings, distributed along three laterally offset waveguides, is presented through a single waveguide port at 1 kHz sampling rate to follow the Bragg wavelength shifts in real-time and thereby infer shape and temperature profile unambiguously along the fiber length. This distributed 3D strain and thermal sensor is freestanding, flexible, compact, lightweight and opens new directions for creating fiber cladding photonic devices for a wide range of applications from shape and thermal sensing to guidance of biomedical catheters and tools in minimally invasive surgery.

In vivo feasibility of endovascular Doppler optical coherence tomography

Feasibility of detecting intravascular flow using a catheter based endovascular optical coherence tomography (OCT) system is demonstrated in a porcine carotid model in vivo. The effects of A-line density, radial distance, signal-to-noise ratio, non-uniform rotational distortion (NURD), phase stability of the swept wavelength laser and interferometer system on Doppler shift detection limit were investigated in stationary and flow phantoms. Techniques for NURD induced phase shift artifact removal were developed by tracking the catheter sheath. Detection of high flow velocity (~51 cm/s) present in the porcine carotid artery was obtained by phase unwrapping techniques and compared to numerical simulation, taking into consideration flow profile distortion by the eccentrically positioned imaging catheter. Using diluted blood in saline mixture as clearing agent, simultaneous Doppler OCT imaging of intravascular flow and structural OCT imaging of the carotid artery wall was feasible. To our knowledge, this is the first in vivo demonstration of Doppler imaging and absolute measurement of intravascular flow using a rotating fiber catheter in carotid artery.

High-power wavelength-swept laser in Littman telescope-less polygon filter and dual-amplifier configuration for multichannel optical coherence tomography.

We report a high-power wavelength-swept laser source for multichannel optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging. Wavelength tuning is performed by a compact telescope-less polygon-based filter in Littman arrangement. High output power is achieved by incorporating two serial semiconductor optical amplifiers in the laser cavity in Fourier domain mode-locked configuration. The measured wavelength tuning range of the laser is 111 nm centered at 1329 nm, coherence length of 5.5 mm, and total average output power of 131 mW at 43 kHz sweeping rate. Multichannel simultaneous OCT imaging at an equivalent A-scan rate of 258 kHz is demonstrated.

Speckle variance optical coherence tomography of the rodent spinal cord: in vivo feasibility.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has the combined advantage of high temporal (µsec) and spatial (<10µm) resolution. These features make it an attractive tool to study the dynamic relationship between neural activity and the surrounding blood vessels in the spinal cord, a topic that is poorly understood. Here we present work that aims to optimize an in vivo OCT imaging model of the rodent spinal cord. In this study we image the microvascular networks of both rats and mice using speckle variance OCT. This is the first report of depth resolved imaging of the in vivo spinal cord using an entirely endogenous contrast mechanism.

Femtosecond laser direct hard mask writing for selective facile micron-scale inverted-pyramid patterning of silicon

We report on the fabrication of high-fidelity inverted-pyramids in crystalline silicon (c-Si) at the 1 μm scale through the selective removal of a silicon nitride (SiNx) hard-mask with a 522 nm femtosecond (fs) laser and subsequent alkaline potassium hydroxide (KOH) etching. Through a series of systematic experiments on a range of hard-mask thicknesses, the use of 20 nm thick SiNx film yielded a 0.6 μm diameter laser-ejected aperture in the hard-mask at a single pulse fluence of 0.45 J cm−2, resulting in 1 μm wide inverted-pyramid structure in c-Si after KOH etching. Anisotropic KOH etching of the partially amorphized c-Si underlying the fs-laser patterned hard mask was found to render clean (111) planes of c-Si. An array of inverted-pyramids on c-Si surfaces as large as 4 cm2 was produced with a defect density of less than 1 in 104. This facile, non-contact, and cleanroom-independent technique serves a variety of applications including anti-reflective texturing of thin c-Si for photovoltaics, wafer marking, labeling, and fabrication of microfluidic and optical devices or laboratories on silicon wafers.We report on the fabrication of high-fidelity inverted-pyramids in crystalline silicon (c-Si) at the 1 μm scale through the selective removal of a silicon nitride (SiNx) hard-mask with a 522 nm femtosecond (fs) laser and subsequent alkaline potassium hydroxide (KOH) etching. Through a series of systematic experiments on a range of hard-mask thicknesses, the use of 20 nm thick SiNx film yielded a 0.6 μm diameter laser-ejected aperture in the hard-mask at a single pulse fluence of 0.45 J cm−2, resulting in 1 μm wide inverted-pyramid structure in c-Si after KOH etching. Anisotropic KOH etching of the partially amorphized c-Si underlying the fs-laser patterned hard mask was found to render clean (111) planes of c-Si. An array of inverted-pyramids on c-Si surfaces as large as 4 cm2 was produced with a defect density of less than 1 in 104. This facile, non-contact, and cleanroom-independent technique serves a variety of applications including anti-reflective texturing of thin c-Si for photovoltaics, wafer marki...

Endovascular optical coherence tomography intensity kurtosis: visualization of vasa vasorum in porcine carotid artery

Application of speckle variance optical coherence tomography (OCT) to endovascular imaging faces difficulty of extensive motion artifacts inherently associated with arterial pulsations in addition to other physiological movements. In this study, we employed a technique involving a fourth order statistical method, kurtosis, operating on the endovascular OCT intensity images to visualize the vasa vasorum of carotid artery in vivo and identify its flow dynamic in a porcine model. The intensity kurtosis technique can distinguish vasa vasorum from the surrounding tissues in the presence of extensive time varying noises and dynamic motions of the arterial wall. Imaging of vasa vasorum and its proliferation, may compliment the growing knowledge of structural endovascular OCT in assessment and treatment of atherosclerosis in coronary and carotid arteries.

Intraoperative handheld optical coherence tomography forward-viewing probe: physical performance and preliminary animal imaging

A prototype intraoperative hand-held optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging probe was developed to provide micron resolution cross-sectional images of subsurface tissue during open surgery. This new ergonomic probe was designed based on electrostatically driven optical fibers, and packaged into a catheter probe in the form factor of clinically accepted Bayonet shaped neurosurgical probes. Optical properties of the probe were measured to have a ~20 μm spot size, 5 mm working distance and 4 mm field of view. Feasibility of this probe for structural and Doppler shift imaging was tested on porcine femoral blood vessel imaging.

Microstructuring of Polypyrrole by Maskless Direct Femtosecond Laser Ablation

Ultrafast laser micromachining was optimized for microstructuring polypyrrole as a facile new approach towards tailoring electrochemical and mechanical responses desirable for microactuator, sensors, neural probing, and nerve conduit applications. Laser perforation of high-density and high aspect ratio through-holes generated greater than 5-fold increase in surface area. The flexible machining technique offers micron-size resolution and fast prototyping capability for optimizing properties and opening new directions for polypyrrole-based devices.

Doppler optical coherence tomography for interventional cardiovascular guidance: in vivo feasibility and forward-viewing probe flow phantom demonstration

We demonstrate the potential of a forward-looking Doppler optical coherence tomography (OCT) probe for color flow imaging in several commonly seen narrowed artery morphologies. As a proof of concept, we present imaging results of a surgically exposed thrombotic occlusion model that was imaged superficially to demonstrate that Doppler OCT can identify flow within the recanalization channels of a blocked artery. We present Doppler OCT images in which the flow is nearly antiparallel to the imaging direction. These images are acquired using a flexible 2.2-mm-diam catheter that used electrostatic actuation to scan up to 30 deg ahead of the distal end. Doppler OCT images of physiologically relevant flow phantoms consisting of small channels and tapered entrance geometries are demonstrated.