Kenneth L. Witte

Age differences in free recall and subjective organization.

Previous studies concerned with subjective organization occurring during free-recall learning have not provided consistent evidence for a hypothesis of organizational deficiency in the elderly. To assess the role of recall conditions in this discrepancy, the free-recall learning of younger and older adults was examined under conditions where the recalled words were either visible or not visible. Also, 5 measures of subjective organization, including measures used in earlier studies, were used to assess the role of measurement factors in producing the inconsistent findings. Younger adults, regardless of recall condition, recalled more words and showed more subjective organization than did the older adults with each of the measures. List length, rather than type of recall trial or measure of subjective organization, seems to be responsible for the conflicting findings obtained by other investigators.

Adult age differences in free recall and category clustering

This experiment used free recall and category clustering methodologies to determine whether older adults, relative to younger adults, are less adept at organizing the to-be-learned material. To assess the role of categorical versus associative relationships upon organization, items that were clear exemplars of their respective categories and had one of two levels of interim associative strength were used. Analyses of the recall data indicated that younger adults recalled more categories, more instances per category, and more total words than did the older adults. Analyses of organizational measures, including both molar and molecular measures of category clustering (a type of secondary organization), and seriation (a type of primary organization), provided evidence for age differences in multiple and divergent modes of organization. Subjects, particularly the younger adults, initially evidenced a seriation strategy and then used one based on category membership.

Recognition and frequency judgments in young and elderly adults.

Three experiments examined frequency judgments and recognition memory in young and elderly adults. Subjects were presented a long list of words at either a 5-s rate (Experiments 1 & 3) or a 1-s rate (Experiment 2), after which frequency-judgment and recognition memory tasks were administered. Either an absolute (Experiments 1 & 2) or a relative (Experiment 3) frequency-judgment task was used. The recognition test, which involved repeated tests of some items, involved either one incorrect item paired with each correct item (Experiments 1 & 2), or four incorrect items (Experiment 3). Age-related differences in frequency judgments, for the more frequently presented items, were found in all three experiments. For the recognition scores, the predicted interaction between age and successive tests was found only in Experiment 3. The results were interpreted within the framework of age-related differences in elaborative encoding and in distractibility to irrelevant stimuli.

Life satisfaction, fear of death, and ego identity in elderly adults

Erikson’s eighth developmental stage, ego integrity vs. despair, was examined using the Life Satisfaction Index-A (LSIA) as a measure of ego integrity, the Death Anxiety Scale (DAS) as a measure of despair, and the Ego Identity Scale (EIS) as a measure of the successful resolution of the first six stages of psychosocial development. Three hypotheses were tested: (1) A positive correlation would exist for performance on the LSIA and the EIS, (2) a negative correlation would exist for performance on the DAS and on the LSIA, and (3) a negative correlation would exist for performance on the DAS and on the EIS. The subjects were 100 men and women 61-89 years of age. The first hypothesis was supported, and the second and third were supported with men but not with women.

Single-Letter Retrieval Cues for Anagram Solution

Abstract Anagram solution, as related to single-letter retrieval cues and first letter of the solution word (consonant or vowel), was examined. In Experiment 1, college-aged solvers were presented both types of 5-letter words and either the first letter of the solution word as a cue, or no cue. In Experiment 2, the effects of four types of retrieval cues (first, middle, or last letter or no cue) upon solving consonant-beginning words was examined. Finally, Experiment 3 examined the solution of both types of solution words as related to the preceding four types of retrieval cues. The results of all 3 experiments showed that a single letter can be an effective cue. For consonant-beginning words, the middle and last letters were as effective as the first letter. For vowel-beginning words, the first letter was more effective than either the middle or last letter. It was concluded that solvers select one letter of the anagram, typically a consonant, to serve as the first letter of the solution word, and then rearrange the remaining letters.

Anagram solution as related to adult age, anagram difficulty, and experience in solving crossword puzzles

Abstract Anagram solution, as related to anagram difficulty, adult age, and frequency of solving crossword puzzles, was examined. Anagrams of three difficulty levels, defined in terms of normative solution times, were initially used in Experiment 1. Subsequently, the data were reanalyzed using two levels of difficulty, defined in terms of solution word frequency. Two levels of anagram difficulty, defined by whether the anagram was presented in the form of a word or nonword, were used in Experiment 2. Anagram solution was negatively related to anagram difficulty and positively related to frequency of solving crossword puzzles. With the exception of the second set of analyses from Experiment 1, no support was found for the complexity hypothesis, that is, the hypothesis that age differences in anagram solution would increase with anagram difficulty. the pattern of results was consistent with the lifestyle hypothesis, that is, the hypothesis that age differences in anagram solution would be greater for infreq...

The effects of modifying color-meaning concepts on racial concept attitudes in five- and eight-year-old children☆

Abstract Williams and Edwards (1969) found that changing the positive and negative evaluations given to color concepts by preschool children through reinforcement procedures over two sessions reduced their racial concept attitude scores measured during a third session. The present study replicated their negative reinforcement and control procedures with 5-year-old children, and extended their research to include 8-year-old children. The present results replicated the original findings and in fact showed a larger change in racial attitude scores. While the color-meaning concepts were modified to a greater extent in the older children, the effect of the negative reinforcement procedure on racial attitude scores was similar for the two age groups.

Food identification, taste complaints, and depression in younger and older adults

The relationships among the ability to identify food stimuli, self-assessed taste complaints and taste acuity, and depression were examined in younger and older adults. Subjects smelled, tasted, and subsequently identified 10 pureed foods while blindfolded. Subjects also completed a demographic questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised Vocabulary subtest. Although an age difference in taste complaints was not found, older adults were poorer at identifying food items, rated their taste acuity as lower, and had higher depression scores than the younger adults. However, the age difference in identifying food items was not due to the age difference in depression, because depression was unrelated to food identification scores for both age groups.

The effects of concept training on preschool children’s oddity performance

Following the suggestion of Lipsitt & Serunian (1963) that reading-readiness training may accelerate the child’s acquisition of the oddity solution, the oddity performance of one group (Group T) of preschoolers who were initially given such training was compared to that for a second group (Group NT) who had not received such training. The training employed facilitated oddity performance in that Group T made significantly more correct responses than Group NT and significantly more children in Group T than in Group NT reached a performance criterion.

Case-Mixing Effects on Anagram Solution

Abstract The effects of mixed-case letters on anagram solution were investigated in 2 studies with college-aged participants. In Experiment 1, the participants attempted to solve anagrams printed in either mixed- or same-case letters. The results showed that mixed-case letters disrupted the solution process. To determine if this effect was a result of the inappropriate grouping of letters of the same case, the authors conducted Experiment 2 as a partial replication of Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, in some cases, uppercase letters in the mixed-case condition formed a word that was of a higher frequency than was the solution word. Once again mixed-case letters disrupted the solution process. However, the authors found no evidence for the hypothesis on the inappropriate grouping of letters as the disruption was independent of having an embedded word in the anagram.