Kent McIntosh

Demonstration of Combined Efforts in School-Wide Academic and Behavioral Systems and Incidence of Reading and Behavior Challenges in Early Elementary Grades.

This study provides descriptive data on the rates of office discipline referrals and beginning reading skills for students in grades K—3 for one school district that is implementing a three-tier prevention model for both reading and behavior support. Students in the district are provided a continuum of reading and/or behavioral support based on screening measures that indicate response to universal, targeted, and intensive support. This combined approach may be more successful due to the number of shared critical features in both systems. Results document positive outcomes in prevalence of students needing additional reading and/or behavior support (in comparison to national figures) and are reported with recommendations for future experimental analyses.

Relationships between Academics and Problem Behavior in the Transition from Middle School to High School.

Given the increased risk factors in the transition from middle school to high school, this study tracked academic and school discipline records for students receiving general and special education services as they transitioned from Grade 8 to Grade 9. The authors employed analysis of variance and structural equation modeling to determine the significance and strength of the relationship between academic skills and behavior variables. Results indicated significant interactions between academic scores and office discipline referrals, both within and across grades. When controlling for the direct effects, crossover effects of Grade 8 discipline referrals on Grade 9 academic scores remained statistically significant, though effects of Grade 8 state reading assessment scores on Grade 9 discipline referrals did not. Results are discussed in terms of improving school environments and academic instruction to prevent school failure.

Differential Effects of a Tier Two Behavior Intervention Based on Function of Problem Behavior

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a tier two daily behavior card intervention and differential effects based on function of problem behavior. The participants were 36 elementary school students nominated for additional intervention beyond universal School-Wide Positive Behavior Support. Measures included standardized behavior rating scales and rate of office discipline referrals before and after 8 weeks of intervention. A multivariate analysis of variance was used, and results showed statistically significant differences in response to intervention based on teacher-identified function of problem behavior. Results are discussed in terms of considering function of behavior in selecting tier two interventions and implementing a three-tier response to intervention model.

Concurrent Validity of Office Discipline Referrals and Cut Points Used in Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support.

Office discipline referrals (ODRs) are commonly used by school teams implementing schoolwide positive behavior support to indicate individual student need for additional behavior support. However, little is known about the technical adequacy of ODRs when used in this manner. In this study, the authors assessed (a) the concurrent validity of number of ODRs received with a contemporary standardized behavior rating scale (the BASC-2 Teacher Report Form) and (b) the validity of common cut points to determine level of support needed (i.e., 0 to 1, 2 to 5, and 6 or more ODRs). Results indicated strong correlations between ODRs and rating of externalizing behavior and statistically and clinically significant differences in behavior ratings based on existing ODR cut points, but there was no significant relation between ODRs and ratings of internalizing problems. Results are discussed in terms of recommended use of ODRs as a screening measure to indicate level of behavior support required.

Sustainability of Systems-Level Evidence-Based Practices in Schools: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

Recent research advances have focused on the use of evidence-based practices to improve academic and behavior support in schools (Hoagwood, 2004; Walker, 2004). Simultaneously, education policy has advocated for strategies that will allow implementation of these practices on a meaningful scale (Adelman & Taylor, 2003; Elias, Zins, Graczyk, & Weissburg, 2003; Mihalic & Irwin, 2003). These complementary efforts are shaping an agenda for transforming research to practice by training typical school personnel to provide efficient and effective interventions. The effectiveness of these practices is measured in part not only by immediate effects but also by sustained effects (Adelman & Taylor, 2003), and some have argued that the widespread use of practices is only significant to the extent that these practices are sustained (Coburn, 2003; McLaughlin & Mitra, 2001). Therefore, if comprehensive school reform is to occur, researchers must make efforts to ensure that implemented practices are both effective and sustainable.

Effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports and Fidelity of Implementation on Problem Behavior in High Schools

High school is an important time in the educational career of students. It is also a time when adolescents face many behavioral, academic, and social-emotional challenges. Current statistics about the behavioral, academic, and social-emotional challenges faced by adolescents, and the impact on society through incarceration and dropout, have prompted high schools to direct their attention toward keeping students engaged and reducing high-risk behavioral challenges. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SW-PBIS) on the levels of individual student problem behaviors during a 3-year effectiveness trial without random assignment to condition. Participants were 36,653 students in 12 high schools. Eight schools implemented SW-PBIS, and four schools served as comparison schools. Results of a multilevel latent growth model showed statistically significant decreases in student office discipline referrals in SW-PBIS schools, with increases in comparison schools, when controlling for enrollment and percent of students receiving free or reduced price meals. In addition, as fidelity of implementation increased, office discipline referrals significantly decreased. Results are discussed in terms of effectiveness of a SW-PBIS approach in high schools and considerations to enhance fidelity of implementation.

Reading Skills and Function of Problem Behavior in Typical School Settings

The authors examined the relation between variables maintaining problem behavior and reading performance for elementary-age students. Participants were 51 students in Grades 4, 5, and 6 who had received two or more office discipline referrals in 2003-2004. Students were grouped by teacher-indicated function of problem behavior. The prevalence of behavioral function for students in general and special education is reported, and differences were determined for the number of discipline referrals and oral reading fluency rates. Chi-square analysis indicated differences in base rates of function between students in general and special education. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences in oral reading fluency by function of problem behavior, and follow-up analyses indicated significantly lower fluency scores for students whose indicated function was escape from academic tasks. These findings provide evidence for a coercion model in the classroom. The results are discussed in terms of the relevance of using functional behavior assessment and behavior support with general education populations.

Perceptions of Contextual Features Related to Implementation and Sustainability of School-Wide Positive Behavior Support

The purpose of this study was to assess the perceived importance of specific contextual variables for initial implementation and sustainability of School-Wide Positive Behavior Support (SWPBS). A large, national sample of 257 school team members completed the School-Wide Universal Behavior Sustainability Index: School Teams, a research-validated measure of variables influencing sustainability of schoolwide behavior interventions. Quantitative and qualitative analyses were used to assess perceptions of the most and least important variables for initial implementation and sustainability, as well as variables perceived as more important to sustainability than initial implementation. Across quantitative and qualitative analyses, results indicated that administrator support and school team functioning were rated as the most important features for both initial implementation and sustainability, whereas barriers to SWPBS were rated as relatively less important. Staff support, integration into typical practice, and parent involvement were rated as significantly more important to sustainability than initial implementation. These results were consistent across types of raters and schools. Implications for enhancing implementation and sustainability of SWPBS are discussed.

Technical Adequacy of the Functional Assessment Checklist: Teachers and Staff (FACTS) FBA Interview Measure.

With the recent increase in the use of functional behavior assessment (FBA) in school settings, there has been an emphasis in practice on the development and use of effective, efficient methods of conducting FBAs, particularly indirect assessment tools such as interviews. There are both benefits and drawbacks to these tools, and their technical adequacy is often unknown. This article presents a framework for assessing the measurement properties of FBA interview tools and uses this framework to assess evidence for reliability and validity of one interview tool, the Functional Assessment Checklist: Teachers and Staff (FACTS; March et al., 2000). Results derived from 10 research studies using the FACTS indicate strong evidence of test—retest reliability and interobserver agreement, moderate to strong evidence of convergent validity with direct observation and functional analysis procedures, strong evidence of treatment utility, and strong evidence of social validity. Results are discussed in terms of future validation research for FBA methods and tools.

Validity of Functional Behavior Assessment within a Response to Intervention Framework: Evidence, Recommended Practice, and Future Directions.

This article discusses the evidence for intervention validity of Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA) in designing support for students with intensive behavioral needs. Since its inclusion into the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act nearly a decade ago, FBA has been the subject of significant research investigating its use and applicability to school-based behavior support. This research, specifically designed to address the question of intervention validity, provides solid evidence of the treatment utility of FBA for behavior support, demonstrating the critical need to use a function-based approach for improved behavior outcomes. The authors present recommendations for research-validated practice in school settings and identify a research agenda to move the field forward in light of the current focus on response to intervention.