Kerstin Hill

Tom40 forms the hydrophilic channel of the mitochondrial import pore for preproteins

The mitochondrial outer membrane contains machinery for the import of preproteins encoded by nuclear genes. Eight different Tom (translocase of outer membrane) proteins have been identified that function as receptors and/or are related to a hypothetical general import pore. Many mitochondrial membrane channel activities have been described, including one related to Tim23 of the inner-membrane protein-import system; however, the pore-forming subunit(s) of the Tom machinery have not been identified until now. Here we describe the expression and functional reconstitution of Tom40, an integral membrane protein with mainly β-sheet structure. Tom40 forms a cation-selective high-conductance channel that specifically binds to and transports mitochondrial-targeting sequences added to the cis side of the membrane. We conclude that Tom40 is the pore-forming subunit of the mitochondrial general import pore and that it constitutes a hydrophilic, ∼22 Å wide channel for the import of preproteins.

Tom22 is a multifunctional organizer of the mitochondrial preprotein translocase

Mitochondrial preproteins are imported by a multisubunit translocase of the outer membrane (TOM), including receptor proteins and a general import pore. The central receptor Tom22 binds preproteins through both its cytosolic domain and its intermembrane space domain and is stably associated with the channel protein Tom40 (refs 11,12,13). Here we report the unexpected observation that a yeast strain can survive without Tom22, although it is strongly reduced in growth and the import of mitochondrial proteins. Tom22 is a multifunctional protein that is required for the higher-level organization of the TOM machinery. In the absence of Tom22, the translocase dissociates into core complexes, representing the basic import units, but lacks a tight control of channel gating. The single membrane anchor of Tom22 is required for a stable interaction between the core complexes, whereas its cytosolic domain serves as docking point for the peripheral receptors Tom20 and Tom70. Thus a preprotein translocase can combine receptor functions with distinct organizing roles in a multidomain protein.

Reconstitution of a chloroplast protein import channel

The chloroplastic outer envelope protein OEP75 with a molecular weight of 75 kDa probably forms the central pore of the protein import machinery of the outer chloroplastic membrane. Patch–clamp analysis shows that heterologously expressed, purified and reconstituted OEP75 constitutes a voltage‐gated ion channel with a unit conductance of Λ = 145pS. Activation of the OEP75 channel in vitro is completely dependent on the magnitude and direction of the voltage gradient. Therefore, movements of protein charges of parts of OEP75 in the membrane electric field are required either for pore formation or its opening. In the presence of precursor protein from only one side of the bilayer, strong flickering and partial closing of the channel was observed, indicating a specific interaction of the precursor with OEP75. The comparatively low ionic conductance of OEP75 is compatible with a rather narrow aqueous pore (dpore ≅ 8–9 Å). Provided that protein and ion translocation occur through the same pore, this implies that the environment of the polypeptide during the transit is mainly hydrophilic and that protein translocation requires almost complete unfolding of the precursor.

TRPM2 channel opening in response to oxidative stress is dependent on activation of poly(ADP‐ribose) polymerase

TRPM2 (melastatin‐like transient receptor potential 2 channel) is a nonselective cation channel that is activated under conditions of oxidative stress leading to an increase in intracellular free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) and cell death. We investigated the role of the DNA repair enzyme poly(ADP‐ribose) polymerase (PARP) on hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)‐mediated TRPM2 activation using a tetracycline‐inducible TRPM2‐expressing cell line. In whole‐cell patch‐clamp recordings, intracellular adenine 5′‐diphosphoribose (ADP‐ribose) triggered an inward current in tetracycline‐induced TRPM2‐human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells, but not in uninduced cells. Similarly, H2O2 stimulated an increase in [Ca2+]i (pEC50 4.54±0.02) in Fluo‐4‐loaded TRPM2‐expressing HEK293 cells, but not in uninduced cells. Induction of TRPM2 expression caused an increase in susceptibility to plasma membrane damage and mitochondrial dysfunction in response to H2O2. These data demonstrate functional expression of TRPM2 following tetracycline induction in TRPM2‐HEK293 cells. PARP inhibitors SB750139‐B (patent number DE10039610‐A1 (Lubisch et al., 2001)), PJ34 (N‐(6‐oxo‐5,6‐dihydro‐phenanthridin‐2‐yl)‐N,N‐dimethylacetamide) and DPQ (3, 4‐dihydro‐5‐[4‐(1‐piperidinyl)butoxy]‐1(2H)‐isoquinolinone) inhibited H2O2‐mediated increases in [Ca2+]i (pIC50 vs 100 μM H2O2: 7.64±0.38; 6.68±0.28; 4.78±0.05, respectively), increases in mitochondrial dysfunction (pIC50 vs 300 μM H2O2: 7.32±0.23; 6.69±0.22; 5.44±0.09, respectively) and decreases in plasma membrane integrity (pIC50 vs 300 μM H2O2: 7.45±0.27; 6.35±0.18; 5.29±0.12, respectively). The order of potency of the PARP inhibitors in these assays (SB750139>PJ34>DPQ) was the same as for inhibition of isolated PARP enzyme. SB750139‐B, PJ34 and DPQ had no effect on inward currents elicited by intracellular ADP‐ribose in tetracycline‐induced TRPM2‐HEK293 cells, suggesting that PARP inhibitors are not interacting directly with the channel. SB750139‐B, PJ34 and DPQ inhibited increases in [Ca2+]i in a rat insulinoma cell line (CRI‐G1 cells) endogenously expressing TRPM2 (pIC50 vs 100 μM H2O2: 7.64±0.38; 6.68±0.28; 4.78±0.05, respectively). These data suggest that oxidative stress causes TRPM2 channel opening in both recombinant and endogenously expressing cell systems via activation of PARP enzymes.

Protein Import Channel of the Outer Mitochondrial Membrane: a Highly Stable Tom40-Tom22 Core Structure Differentially Interacts with Preproteins, Small Tom Proteins, and Import Receptors

ABSTRACT The preprotein translocase of the yeast mitochondrial outer membrane (TOM) consists of the initial import receptors Tom70 and Tom20 and a ∼400-kDa (400 K) general import pore (GIP) complex that includes the central receptor Tom22, the channel Tom40, and the three small Tom proteins Tom7, Tom6, and Tom5. We report that the GIP complex is a highly stable complex with an unusual resistance to urea and alkaline pH. Under mild conditions for mitochondrial lysis, the receptor Tom20, but not Tom70, is quantitatively associated with the GIP complex, forming a 500K to 600K TOM complex. A preprotein, stably arrested in the GIP complex, is released by urea but not high salt, indicating that ionic interactions are not essential for keeping the preprotein in the GIP complex. Under more stringent detergent conditions, however, Tom20 and all three small Tom proteins are released, while the preprotein remains in the GIP complex. Moreover, purified outer membrane vesicles devoid of translocase components of the intermembrane space and inner membrane efficiently accumulate the preprotein in the GIP complex. Together, Tom40 and Tom22 thus represent the functional core unit that stably holds accumulated preproteins. The GIP complex isolated from outer membranes exhibits characteristic TOM channel activity with two coupled conductance states, each corresponding to the activity of purified Tom40, suggesting that the complex contains two simultaneously active and coupled channel pores.

Flufenamic acid is a pH-dependent antagonist of TRPM2 channels

Like a number of other TRP channels, TRPM2 is a Ca(2+)-permeable non-selective cation channel, the activity of which is regulated by intracellular and extracellular Ca(2+). A unique feature of TRPM2 is its activation by ADP-ribose and chemical species that arise during oxidative stress, for example, NAD(+) and H(2)O(2). These properties have lead to proposals that this channel may play a role in the cell death produced by pathological redox states. The lack of known antagonists of this channel have made these hypotheses difficult to test. Here, we demonstrate, using patch clamp electrophysiology, that the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory compound flufenamic acid (FFA) inhibits recombinant human TRPM2 (hTRPM2) as well as currents activated by intracellular ADP-ribose in the CRI-G1 rat insulinoma cell line. All concentrations tested in a range from 50 to 1000 microM produced complete inhibition of the TRPM2-mediated current. Following FFA removal, a small (typically 10-15%) component of current was rapidly recovered (time constant approximately 3 s), considerably longer periods in the absence of FFA produced no further current recovery. Reapplication of FFA re-antagonised the recovered current and subsequent FFA washout produced recovery of only a small percentage of the reblocked current. Decreasing extracellular pH accelerated FFA inhibition of TRPM2. Additional experiments indicated hTRPM2 activation was required for FFA antagonism to occur and that the generation of irreversible antagonism was preceded by a reversible component of block. FFA inhibition could not be induced by intracellular application of FFA. ADP-ribose activated currents in the rat insulinoma cell line CRI-G1 were also antagonised by FFA with concentration- and pH-dependent kinetics. In contrast to the observations made with hTRPM2, antagonism of ADP-ribose activated currents in CRI-G1 cells could be fully reversed following FFA removal. These experiments suggest that FFA may be a useful tool antagonist for studies of TRPM2 function.

A High-Conductance Solute Channel in the Chloroplastic Outer Envelope from Pea

The pea chloroplastic outer envelope protein OEP24 can function as a general solute channel. OEP24 is present in chloroplasts, etioplasts, and non-green root plastids. The heterologously expressed protein forms a voltage-dependent, high-conductance (Λ = 1.3 nS in 1 M KCl), and slightly cation-selective ion channel in reconstituted proteoliposomes. The highest open probability (Popen ≈ 0.8) is at 0 mV, which is consistent with the absence of a transmembrane potential across the chloroplastic outer envelope. The OEP24 channels allow the flux of triosephosphate, dicarboxylic acids, positively or negatively charged amino acids, sugars, ATP, and Pi. Structure prediction algorithms and circular dichroism spectra indicate that OEP24 contains seven amphiphilic β strands. The primary structure of OEP24 shows no homologies to mitochondrial or bacterial porins on a primary sequence basis, and OEP24 is functionally not inhibited by cadaverine, which is a potent inhibitor of bacterial porins. We conclude that OEP24 represents a new type of solute channel in the plastidic outer envelope.

Specific TRPC6 Channel Activation, a Novel Approach to Stimulate Keratinocyte Differentiation

The protective epithelial barrier in our skin undergoes constant regulation, whereby the balance between differentiation and proliferation of keratinocytes plays a major role. Impaired keratinocyte differentiation and proliferation are key elements in the pathophysiology of several important dermatological diseases, including atopic dermatitis and psoriasis. Ca2+ influx plays an essential role in this process presumably mediated by different transient receptor potential (TRP) channels. However, investigating their individual role was hampered by the lack of specific stimulators or inhibitors. Because we have recently identified hyperforin as a specific TRPC6 activator, we investigated the contribution of TRPC6 to keratinocyte differentiation and proliferation. Like the endogenous differentiation stimulus high extracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]o), hyperforin triggers differentiation in HaCaT cells and in primary cultures of human keratinocytes by inducing Ca2+ influx via TRPC6 channels and additional inhibition of proliferation. Knocking down TRPC6 channels prevents the induction of Ca2+- and hyperforin-induced differentiation. Importantly, TRPC6 activation is sufficient to induce keratinocyte differentiation similar to the physiological stimulus [Ca2+]o. Therefore, TRPC6 activation by hyperforin may represent a new innovative therapeutic strategy in skin disorders characterized by altered keratinocyte differentiation.

A rectifying ATP‐regulated solute channel in the chloroplastic outer envelope from pea

Phosphorylated carbohydrates are the main photoassimilated export products from chloroplasts that support the energy household and metabolism of the plant cell. Channels formed by the chloroplastic outer envelope protein OEP21 selectively facilitate the translocation of triosephosphate, 3‐phosphoglycerate and phosphate, central intermediates in the source–sink relationship between the chloroplast and the cytosol. The anion selectivity and asymmetric transport properties of OEP21 are modulated by the ratio between ATP and triosephosphates, 3‐phosphoglycerate and phosphate in the intermembrane space. Conditions that lead to export of triosephosphate from chloroplasts, i.e. photosynthesis, result in outward‐rectifying OEP21 channels, while a high ATP to triosephosphate ratio, e.g. dark metabolism, leads to inward‐rectifying OEP21 channels with a less pronounced anion selectivity. We conclude that solute exchange between plastids and cytosol can already be regulated at the level of the organellar outer membrane.

TRPA1 is differentially modulated by the amphipathic molecules trinitrophenol and chlorpromazine.

TRPA1, a poorly selective Ca2+-permeable cation channel, is expressed in peripheral sensory neurons, where it is considered to contribute to a variety of sensory processes such as the detection of painful stimuli. Furthermore, TRPA1 was also identified in hair cells of the inner ear, but its involvement in sensing mechanical forces is still being controversially discussed. Amphipathic molecules such as trinitrophenol and chlorpromazine have been shown to provide useful tools to study mechanosensitive channels. Depending on their charge, they partition in the inner or outer sheets of the lipid bilayer, causing a curvature of the membrane, which has been demonstrated to activate or inhibit mechanosensitive ion channels. In the present study, we investigated the effect of these molecules on TRPA1 gating. TRPA1 was robustly activated by the anionic amphipathic molecule trinitrophenol. The whole-cell and single channel properties resemble those previously described for TRPA1. Moreover, we could show that the toxin GsMTx-4 acts on TRPA1. In addition to its recently described role as an inhibitor of stretch-activated ion channels, it serves as a potent activator of TRPA1 channels. On the other hand, the positively charged drug chlorpromazine modulates activated TRPA1 currents in a voltage-dependent way. The exposure of activated TRPA1 channels to chlorpromazine led to a block at positive potentials and an increased open probability at negative potentials. The variability in the shape of the I-V curve gives a first indication that native mechanically activated TRPA1 currents must not necessarily exhibit the same biophysical properties as ligand-activated TRPA1 currents.