Kevin B. Bennett

Graphical displays: implications for divided attention, focused attention, and problem solving

When completing tasks in complex, dynamic domains observers must consider the relationships among many variables (e.g., integrated tasks) as well as the values of individual variables (e.g., focused tasks). A critical issue in display design is whether or not a single display format can achieve the dual design goals of supporting performance at both types of tasks. We consider this issue from a variety of perspectives. One relevant perspective is the basic research on attention and object perception, which concentrates on the interaction between visual features and processing capabilities. The principles of configurality are discussed, with the conclusion that they support the possibility of achieving the dual design goals. These considerations are necessary but not sufficient for effective display design. Graphic displays map information from a domain into visual features; the tasks to be completed are defined in terms of the domain, not in terms of the visual features alone. The implications of this subtle but extremely important difference are discussed. The laboratory research investigating alternative display formats is reviewed. Much like the attention literature, the results do not rule out the possibility that the dual design goals can be achieved.

Emergent Features and Graphical Elements: Designing More Effective Configural Displays:

When performing tasks in complex, dynamic domains individuals must consider information regarding both high-level constraints (relationships among several variables, performance goals) and low-level data (the values of individual variables). Previous research has revealed mixed results concerning the effectiveness of configural displays in achieving these dual design goals. Two empirical studies were conducted to investigate these issues using a laboratory analogue of a complex, dynamic task modeled on a real-world domain. Performance with a configural display, which highlighted the low-level data, was compared with performance with a bar graph display. For the extraction of information about high-level constraints in a memory probe task, the configural display significantly increased accuracy with no cost in latency. For low-level data there were no differences in accuracy across the two display conditions, but there was a significant cost in latency with the configural display. However, this cost was dependent on both experience and system state. These results suggest that configural displays can be designed to support the extraction of both high-level constraints and low-level data in complex, dynamic domains. To support the extraction of information for high-level constraints, the emergent features produced by a configural display must reflect the critical data relationships that are present in the domain. To support the extraction of low-level data, the graphical elements of the display must be made more salient perceptually through a variety of techniques, including emphasis of scale, spatial separation, and color-coding.

Ecological Interface Design for Military Command and Control

The authors use the cognitive systems engineering framework to design and evaluate an interface for military command and control. They discuss analytic tools and principles of this framework and provide concrete examples (e.g., work domain analyses for U.S. Army tactical operations at the battalion level). They also discuss principles of ecological interface design, including direct perception, direct manipulation, and the perception-action loop. The translation between work domain analyses and the specific characteristics of the interface are made explicit. The authors describe the potential for this interface to support effective decision making and problem solving, including links with naturalistic decision-making approaches. Evaluations of the interface have been positive and are described briefly. Actual or potential applications of this research include both specific interface design strategies for military command and control and general interface design principles for this category of work domain.

Pattern-directed attention in uncertain-frequency detection

The role of early pattern components as cues in uncertain frequency detection was investigated in four probe-signal experiments. Listeners heard two consecutive presentations of one of two 12-tone patterns in a noise background. One presentation of the pattern was complete, whereas the other was missing the 11th (primary) tone. Listeners were required to indicate which presentation was complete. On 20% of the test trials, the 11th component of the complete pattern was replaced with one of four probe tones. The results indicated that listeners were more sensitive to the primary tone than to probe tones, and this selective sensitivity changed on a trial-by-trial basis as a function of the attentional cues provided by early pattern components. The data suggested two cue functions: (1) an “informational” function in providing information regarding which of two primary tones is likely to occur on a given trial, and (2) a “frequency” function that “automatically” directs listening to an appropriate frequency range and narrows or “fine tunes,” the listening band.

Evaluation of an Ecological Interface Design for Military Command and Control

Two alternative interfaces developed for military command and control were evaluated. The theoretical frameworks and concepts used during their development are discussed, and the findings are related to larger issues in display, interface, and system design. Key aspects of cognitive systems engineering (CSE) and ecological interface design (EID) are discussed. An ecological interface was designed with principles of direct perception, direct manipulation, and visual momentum. An experimental version of an existing interface was also developed. An experiment was conducted with a synthetic task environment that incorporated scenarios of tactical operations. Participants were experienced army officers. Dependent variables included status reports for friendly and enemy resources and activities, subjective workload, and information access. Significant results favoring the ecological interface were obtained for six of seven dependent measures. The ecological interface was easy to learn, easy to use, and dramatically more effective than the existing interface. The results are interpreted from the CSE-EID perspective, but insights from naturalistic decision making and situation awareness are also described. The specific design features of the ecological interface are directly applicable to military command and control and similar domains; the overall CSE-EID approach is applicable to interface design for all work domains.

Configural display design techniques considered at multiple levels of evaluation

Two studies were conducted to examine issues in the design and evaluation of configural displays. Four design techniques (bar graphs/extenders, scale markers/ scale grids, color coding/color layering/color separation, and annotation with digital values) were applied, alone and in combination, to a baseline configural display, forming 10 displays. Two qualitatively different evaluations assessed performance for (A) low-level data probes (quantitative estimates of individual variables) and (B) system control and fault detection tasks. Three of the four design techniques improved performance significantly for low-level data probes (color coding was the exception). A display with digital values only (i.e., no analog configural display) produced the poorest performance for control/fault detection tasks. When both levels of evaluation are considered, a composite display (configural display with all four techniques applied) was clearly the most effective. Overall, the findings obtained in the two experiments provide very limited evidence for the generalization of results between evaluations. The two levels of evaluation, the display manipulations, and the patterns of results are considered in terms of a cognitive systems engineering evaluation framework. General implications for the evaluation of displays and interfaces are discussed. Actual or potential applications include design techniques to improve graphical displays and methodological insights to focus and improve evaluation efforts.

Graphical Interfaces to Complex Systems: Separating the Wheat from the Chaff

There seems to be a clear consensus that graphical interfaces provide an opportunity to integrate data from complex process in a way that can greatly enhance the problem solving ability of human operators in the future. However, this consensus is maske by a proliferation of terms to express this position in the basic and applied research literatures (e.g., “integrality,” “configurality,” “proximity-compatibility,” “visual momentum,” “direct manipulation,” and “ecological interface”). While the subtle nuances that distinguish among these terms are of academic interest, designers have greater concern for the general principles that might be gleaned from across the subtle distinctions. Base on a thorough review of the basic and applied literature (Bennett & Flach, In press), we argue that there is one basic characteristic of graphical representations that is critical for supporting problem solving. A good graphical display is one whose geometric (space/time) constraints reflect the functional constraints in the proess being represented. In this presentation, we will demonstrate what we mean by a “functional constraint” in a process and a “geometric constraint” in a display. We will demonstrate alternative mappings from “functional constraints” to “geometric constraints.” We will also discuss the implications of these mappings for the type of processing (cognitive versus perceptual) required of the human operator.

Human Factors in Cyber Warfare: Alternative Perspectives

There has been a dramatic increase in the total number of reported cyber security breaches and attacks in recent years. In response, government, and corporate entities have invested billions of dollars in funding research and development efforts for cyber operations, including computer network defense (CND) and computer network attack (CNA). While cyber operations have become an important national priority over the last decade, the Human Factors community has yet to approach it with critical mass. In its purest form, cyber operations are a complex sociotechnical system that can have effects across all levels of an organization. Due to a consistent interplay between human cognition, technology, and organizational constraints within the environment, the Human Factors community is particularly well-suited to address the problem space. We have assembled a panel of six scientists, technologists, and subject matter experts across multiple specializations in the Human Factors community to help begin this increasingly important discussion. The goal of this panel is to have an open discussion on how we can leverage our specializations and expertise to address the cyber operations landscape as a community.

Perception-Action Icons: An Interface Design Strategy for Intermediate Domains

Objective: A prototype interface was developed to support decision making during tactical operations; a laboratory experiment was conducted to evaluate the capability of this interface to support a critical activity (i.e., obtaining the status of friendly combat resources). Background: Effective interface design strategies have been developed for domains that have primarily law-driven (e.g., process control) or intent-driven (e.g., information retrieval) constraints. However, design strategies for intermediate domains in which both types of constraints are equally critical, such as military command and control, have not been explored as extensively. The principles of direct perception, direct manipulation, and perception-action loops were used to develop a hybrid interface design strategy (“perception-action icons”) that was incorporated into the prototype interface. Methods: A qualitative tactical simulation and an alternative interface (an experimental version of an existing U.S. Army interface) were developed. Participants used both interfaces to provide estimates of friendly combat resources for three different categories of information at three different echelon levels. Results: The results were unequivocal, indicating that the interface with perception-action icons produced significantly better performance. Conclusion: The perception-action icon design strategy was very effective in this experimental context. The potential for this design strategy to be useful for other intermediate domains is explored. Application: Actual or potential applications of this research include both specific interface design strategies for military command and control and general interface design principles for intermediate work domains.

Encoding apparent motion in animated mimic displays

Animated mimic displays represent system components, the physical connections between components, and the analogical flow of information or resources. These displays have the potential to improve the effectiveness of both training and realtime performance. One animation technique that is particularly efficient (from a computational perspective) is color table animation, which produces a subjective impression of movement through apparent motion. Display variables likely to influence the effectiveness of apparent motion were investigated in two experiments. The primary experimental manipulations were the levels of chromatic and luminance contrast in the displays (temporal frequency and direction of apparent motion were also varied). The results suggest that both types of contrast can bused to encode apparent motion but that luminance contrast is more effective. Several additional variables likely to influence the effectiveness of animation were held constant and are discussed briefly.