Kevin F. Downing

Paleoecology of an Exceptionally Preserved Arthropod Fauna from Lake Deposits of the Miocene Barstow Formation, Southern California, U.S.A

Abstract A unique aquatic arthropod Konservat Lagerstätte occurs in lacustrine-derived carbonate concretions within the Miocene Barstow Formation of southern California. Faunal elements are primarily aquatic, salinity-tolerant, autochthonous predaceous diving beetle larvae, fly larvae and pupae, mosquito and thrip larvae, and fairy shrimp. Three-dimensional preservation of soft tissues is via replacement by silica-based minerals as well as calcite, celestite, apatite, and gypsum. The fauna occurs in three beds (each 1–3 m thick) within an approximately 100 m sequence of predominantly microlaminated mudstone deposited in a saline-alkaline lacustrine environment. Faunal composition is consistent between sites and concretion beds, but faunal composition and diversity changed significantly during lake history, corresponding to differences in brine chemistry as well as preservational facies, resulting from the shift toward a more nearshore regime. The changes in lake chemistry and subsequent changes in fauna indicate lake shallowing as well as regional and global climate change towards greater aridity during the Miocene that also is coincident with regional uplift.

Geochemistry and early diagenesis of mammal-bearing concretions from the Sucker Creek Formation (Miocene) of southeastern Oregon

In situ concretions are important sources of fossil mammals in the Sucker Creek Formation (middle Miocene) in southeastern Oregon. Three discrete mammal-bearing concretion horizons occur within a 20-m volcanogenic paleosol sequence in the Devil9s Gate area. Approximately 35% of collected concretions contain visually discernible bone. Concretions may also contain root casts or inorganic nuclei (e.g., pumice clasts, volcanic clays); or may be internally homogenous. The concretions themselves are mineralogically distinct from marine-derived concretion types (i.e., siderite and calcium carbonate) that more commonly preserve vertebrate remains, such as fish and sharks. Energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS), X-ray diffraction, and Microprobe techniques were used to infer geochemical interactions that occurred between bone and enclosing volcaniclastics during early concretion diagenesis. Both concentrations and distributions of chemical phases and minerals have been used to suggest that the following events occurred during their development: (1) partial dissolution of bone hydroxyapatite by groundwater and diffusion into adjacent volcaniclastic material; (2) filling of bone voids by calcite, quartz, hematite, and zeolites; (3) development of a porous fabric around the bone by the precipitation of dissolved bone hydroxyapatite, seeded by inorganically derived hydroxyapatite and calcic zeolites derived from volcanic ash; (4) deposition of a secondary zeolite fabric into voids of the dominant fabric; and (5) development of bentonitic clays around concretions during pedogenesis. Although some superficial bone was consumed during concretion diagenesis, relatively fast concretion development in this volcanic environment reduced the chance of prolonged chemical and physical destruction during later soil development. Consequently, bone-volcaniclastic interactions played an important role in the preservation of large mammal skeletal remains and rare skeletal elements of small mammals.

Valuing Science and Science Learning as Scientific Capital

Gerhard Ertl, the 2007 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, said a remarkable thing in the days prior to receiving his award. “Science is international,” he said. “So there is no Chinese science, no German science, no American science. That means that all the free exchange of results between the different countries is necessary” (Edmonds, 2007, para. 4). One of two German scientists to win a 2007 Nobel Prize – the other is the physicist, Peter Gruenberg – Ertl’s comments were made within the context of a discussion about the role of science in solving the world’s problems. What makes his comment remarkable is that it still needs to be said, after decades of collaborative science across the globe. Over 60 years ago, science was recognized as a major—perhaps the major—force behind world economies (Bush, 1945). Five of UNESCO’s World Development Indicators are related to advances in science knowledge (i.e., defense, transportation, power and communication, information technologies and science and technology), and world leaders from China to Canada press the need for science infrastructure and science-friendly policy (Health Canada, 2007; Zhu, 2006). Science capacity is scientific capital. Tertiary and continuing science education play irreplaceable roles in the development of scientific capital. In this chapter, we posit the interrelationship of three elements – self-efficacy, societal capital and science valuation – as foundational to scientific capital as a force for development initiatives, conceptualized in Fig. 6.1, and explore the theory and interrelationships behind each element. We also provide examples of science education initiatives at the national or international level designed to enhance scientific capital within several societies struggling with vastly differing challenges—from the basic need for clean water to the under employment of extant human resources and the dearth of even elementary information and communications technology (ICT) – then discuss threads connecting each to the three elements described. Those funding the initiatives tend to be non-governmental agencies (NGOs) (e.g., UNESCO), although government-based initiatives are included, sometimes as an adjunct to the work of NGOs.