Kevin P. McIntyre

Attitudes Toward Victims of Rape Effects of Gender, Race, Religion, and Social Class

Although previous literature focusing on perceptions of victims of rape has examined how gender, race, and culture influence the attitudes one holds toward victims, these studies have yielded mixed results. This study compared perceptions of victims of rape across a wide range of ages, educational backgrounds, religions, and income levels, while focusing on gender and racial differences. Results indicate (N = 220) that victims of rape are generally viewed more sympathetically by females than by males and by Whites than by African Americans. However, the effect of race disappears when socioeconomic variables are controlled, suggesting a more complex relationship. Also, a hierarchical regression indicates that age, sex, education, and income are significant predictors of attitudes toward victims. This study builds on existing research that examines such attitudes from a cultural perspective and extends this literature by examining the interactive effects of several demographic variables within a community sample.

Can we reduce eating disorder risk factors in female college athletes? A randomized exploratory investigation of two peer-led interventions

Female athletes are at least as at risk as other women for eating disorders (EDs) and at risk for the female athlete triad (i.e., inadequate energy availability, menstrual disorders, and osteoporosis). This study investigated whether two evidence-based programs appear promising for future study if modified to address the unique needs of female athletes. Athletes were randomly assigned to athlete-modified dissonance prevention or healthy weight intervention (AM-HWI). ED risk factors were assessed pre/post-treatment, and 6-week and 1-year follow-up. Results (analyzed sample, N=157) indicated that both interventions reduced thin-ideal internalization, dietary restraint, bulimic pathology, shape and weight concern, and negative affect at 6 weeks, and bulimic pathology, shape concern, and negative affect at 1 year. Unexpectedly we observed an increase in students spontaneously seeking medical consultation for the triad. Qualitative results suggested that AM-HWI may be more preferred by athletes.

Workplace Self-Expansion: Implications for Job Satisfaction, Commitment, Self-Concept Clarity, and Self-Esteem Among the Employed and Unemployed

Similar to how individuals in close relationships incorporate aspects of their partner into their self-concept, we suggest that jobs promote self-expansion when they lead people to develop skills and assume new identities. In Study 1, we sampled currently employed individuals, and results show that self-expansion predicts job satisfaction and commitment, even when controlling for salary, tenure, and demographic variables. In Study 2, we examined the impact of losing a self-expanding job by sampling currently unemployed individuals, and results show that losing a self-expanding job results in lower amounts of self-concept clarity and self-esteem.

Early Verb Learning: How Do Children Learn How to Compare Events?

An important problem verb learners must solve is how to extend verbs. Children could use cross-situational information to guide their extensions; however, comparing events is difficult. In 2 studies, researchers tested whether children benefit from initially seeing a pair of similar events (“progressive alignment”) while learning new verbs and whether this influence changes with age. In Study 1, 2.5- and 3.5-year-old children participated in an interactive task. Children who saw a pair of similar events and then varied events were able to extend verbs at test and differed from a control group; children who saw 2 pairs of varied events did not differ from the control group. In Study 2, events were presented on a monitor. Following the initial pair of events that varied by condition, a Tobii x120 eye tracker recorded 2.5-, 3.5-, and 4.5-year-olds’ fixations to specific elements of events (areas of interest) during the 2nd pair of events, which were the same across conditions. After seeing the pair of events that were highly similar, 2.5-year-olds showed significantly longer fixation durations to agents and to affected objects as compared with the all-varied condition. At test, 3.5-year-olds were able to extend the verb, but only in the progressive alignment condition. These results are important because they show children’s visual attention to relevant elements in dynamic events is influenced by their prior comparison experience, and they show that young children benefit from seeing similar events as they learn to compare events to each other.

When “we” changes “me” The two-dimensional model of relational self-change and relationship outcomes

Individuals in close relationships may perceive changes to their self-concepts as a result of being with their partners. According to the two-dimensional model of relational self-change, these changes occur across two dimensions, namely direction, which reflects whether the self-concept has gained or lost content, and valence, which reflects whether the self-concept content is positive or negative. These two dimensions combine to create four distinct self-change processes, whereby individuals gain positive traits (self-expansion), gain negative traits (self-adulteration), lose positive traits (self-contraction), and lose negative traits (self-pruning). Study 1 used a longitudinal design and revealed that changes in each of the four self-processes were associated with subsequent relationship satisfaction and commitment. To further investigate the association of self-change with relationship quality, Study 2 found that processes associated with self-concept improvement (i.e., self-expansion and self-pruning) were positively associated with relationship maintenance behaviors and motivations (e.g., accommodation, forgiveness, and willingness to sacrifice), whereas processes associated with self-concept degradation (i.e., self-contraction and self-adulteration) were negatively associated with these outcomes and positively associated with behaviors that may harm the relationship (e.g., dissolution considerations, attention to alternatives, and seeking revenge).

Two paths of defense: Specific versus compensatory reactions to self-threat

Eisenstadt and Leippe (1994) and Eisenstadt, Leippe, and Rivers (2002) proposed that people respond to threatening feedback by engaging in a self-comparison process in which they ultimately accept or reject the feedback based on its refutability. The aims of the current study were to test the processes involved in: (a) specific feedback acceptance and refutation; and (b) compensatory adjustments in the self-concept following feedback. Participants received threatening feedback of high or low importance while under high or low cognitive load and then rated the self-descriptiveness of the specific feedback trait, non-feedback traits, affect, state self-esteem, and listed thoughts about the feedback. As hypothesized, counterarguments mediated acceptance of the specific feedback. Affect and state self-esteem, however, mediated compensatory adjustments in the self-concept.

Social Comparison as a Self-regulatory Measuring Stick

How do individuals assess the magnitude of their self-discrepancies? In this research, we suggest that social comparison operates as a self-regulatory measuring stick that helps individuals assess where they stand relative to self-standards (ideal, ought, and feared selves), and contributes to the experience of discrepancy-related emotions. Study 1 revealed that individuals high in social comparison orientation (SCO) report ideal and ought self-discrepancies larger in magnitude than those low in SCO. Study 2, which examined upward and downward comparison tendencies separately, demonstrated that chronic upward comparison predicts ideal and ought self-discrepancy magnitudes, whereas downward comparison predicts feared self-discrepancy magnitude. Both studies indicate that social comparison tendencies are associated with the experience of agitation, dejection, contentment and cheerfulness.

Self-Concept Clarity and Romantic Relationships

This chapter reviews the empirical evidence examining the link between self-concept clarity and close romantic relationships. Overall, increased self-concept clarity among partners predicts a variety of positive relationship outcomes, including relationship quality (e.g., satisfaction and commitment), investment, and self-other correspondence that may facilitate relationship functioning. Moreover, relationship dissolution leads to the reduction of self-concept clarity (i.e., self-concept confusion) and subsequent emotional distress. We also review the literature examining the mediating variables in the association between self-concept clarity and romantic relationships, including psychological well-being, self-esteem, identity construction, and prototype matching. Finally, we examine the moderating role that self-concept clarity plays in romantic relationships, specifically related to relationship-induced self-concept change (e.g., self-expansion). This review suggests that self-concept clarity is a valuable construct, which is ripe for future research on the dynamic interplay of self-concept and romantic relationships.

Implicit theories of relationships and self-expansion: Implications for relationship functioning

Individuals hold implicit beliefs about the nature of romantic relationships. Growth beliefs are characterized by thoughts that romantic relationships can be cultivated over time, whereas destiny beliefs are characterized by thoughts that relationships are either meant to be or not. In the current research, we propose that individuals who hold strong growth beliefs (but not destiny beliefs) should be more likely to experience self-expansion, as these individuals are oriented toward relationship cultivation. In turn, this increase in self-expansion should promote greater relationship quality and maintenance. Across three studies (two cross-sectional and one longitudinal) that sampled from varying populations and relationship types, we found evidence that self-expansion mediates the association between growth beliefs (but not destiny beliefs) and satisfaction, commitment, accommodation, and dissolution consideration. These data provide insights into the mechanisms by which implicit theories influence relationship functioning and establish implicit theories as an individual-level antecedent to the self-expansion experience.