Kevin Rozwadowski

Genome-wide analysis of ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression motif-containing transcriptional regulators in Arabidopsis.

The ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif is a transcriptional regulatory motif identified in members of the ethylene-responsive element binding factor, C2H2, and auxin/indole-3-acetic acid families of transcriptional regulators. Sequence comparison of the core EAR motif sites from these proteins revealed two distinct conservation patterns: LxLxL and DLNxxP. Proteins containing these motifs play key roles in diverse biological functions by negatively regulating genes involved in developmental, hormonal, and stress signaling pathways. Through a genome-wide bioinformatics analysis, we have identified the complete repertoire of the EAR repressome in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) comprising 219 proteins belonging to 21 different transcriptional regulator families. Approximately 72% of these proteins contain a LxLxL type of EAR motif, 22% contain a DLNxxP type of EAR motif, and the remaining 6% have a motif where LxLxL and DLNxxP are overlapping. Published in vitro and in planta investigations support approximately 40% of these proteins functioning as negative regulators of gene expression. Comparative sequence analysis of EAR motif sites and adjoining regions has identified additional preferred residues and potential posttranslational modification sites that may influence the functionality of the EAR motif. Homology searches against protein databases of poplar (Populus trichocarpa), grapevine (Vitis vinifera), rice (Oryza sativa), and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) revealed that the EAR motif is conserved across these diverse plant species. This genome-wide analysis represents the most extensive survey of EAR motif-containing proteins in Arabidopsis to date and provides a resource enabling investigations into their biological roles and the mechanism of EAR motif-mediated transcriptional regulation.

EAR motif-mediated transcriptional repression in plants: An underlying mechanism for epigenetic regulation of gene expression

Ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated Amphiphilic Repression (EAR) motif-mediated transcriptional repression is emerging as one of the principal mechanisms of plant gene regulation. The EAR motif, defined by the consensus sequence patterns of either LxLxL or DLNxxP, is the most predominant form of transcriptional repression motif so far identified in plants. Additionally, this active repression motif is highly conserved in transcriptional regulators known to function as negative regulators in a broad range of developmental and physiological processes across evolutionarily diverse plant species. Recent discoveries of co-repressors interacting with EAR motifs, such as TOPLESS (TPL) and AtSAP18, have begun to unravel the mechanisms of EAR motif-mediated repression. The demonstration of genetic interaction between mutants of TPL and AtHDA19, co-complex formation between TPL-related 1 (TPR1) and AtHDA19, as well as direct physical interaction between AtSAP18 and AtHDA19 support a model where EAR repressors, via recruitment of chromatin remodeling factors, facilitate epigenetic regulation of gene expression. Here, we discuss the biological significance of EAR-mediated gene regulation in the broader context of plant biology and present literature evidence in support of a model for EAR motif-mediated repression via the recruitment and action of chromatin modifiers. Additionally, we discuss the possible influences of phosphorylation and ubiquitination on the function and turnover of EAR repressors.

Repression of Seed Maturation Genes by a Trihelix Transcriptional Repressor in Arabidopsis Seedlings

The seed maturation program is repressed during germination and seedling development so that embryonic genes are not expressed in vegetative organs. Here, we describe a regulator that represses the expression of embryonic seed maturation genes in vegetative tissues. ASIL1 (for Arabidopsis 6b-interacting protein 1-like 1) was isolated by its interaction with the Arabidopsis thaliana 2S3 promoter. ASIL1 possesses domains conserved in the plant-specific trihelix family of DNA binding proteins and belongs to a subfamily of 6b-interacting protein 1-like factors. The seedlings of asil1 mutants exhibited a global shift in gene expression to a profile resembling late embryogenesis. LEAFY COTYLEDON1 and 2 were markedly derepressed during early germination, as was a large subset of seed maturation genes, such as those encoding seed storage proteins and oleosins, in seedlings of asil1 mutants. Consistent with this, asil1 seedlings accumulated 2S albumin and oil with a fatty acid composition similar to that of seed-derived lipid. Moreover, ASIL1 specifically recognized a GT element that overlaps the G-box and is in close proximity to the RY repeats of the 2S promoters. We suggest that ASIL1 targets GT-box–containing embryonic genes by competing with the binding of transcriptional activators to this promoter region.

The Arabidopsis TIR-NB-LRR Gene RAC1 Confers Resistance to Albugo candida (White Rust) and Is Dependent on EDS1 but not PAD4

Resistance to Albugo candida isolate Acem1 is conferred by a dominant gene, RAC1, in accession Ksk-1 of Arabidopsis thaliana. This gene was isolated by positional cloning and is a member of the Drosophila toll and mammalian interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat (NB-LRR) class of plant resistance genes. Strong identity of the TIR and NB domains was observed between the predicted proteins encoded by the Ksk-1 allele and the allele from an Acem1-susceptible accession Columbia (Col) (99 and 98%, respectively). However, major differences between the two predicted proteins occur within the LRR domain and mainly are confined to the beta-strand/beta-turn structure of the LRR. Both proteins contain 14 imperfect repeats. RAC1-mediated resistance was analyzed further using mutations in defense regulation, including: pad4-1, eds1-1, and NahG, in the presence of the RAC1 allele from Ksk-1. White rust resistance was completely abolished by eds1-1 but was not affected by either pad4-1 or NahG.

An EAR-Dependent Regulatory Module Promotes Male Germ Cell Division and Sperm Fertility in Arabidopsis

The development of sperm cells in angiosperms is coordinated by the MYB transcription factor DUO1. Male germ cell division and sperm fertility are shown to depend on DAZ1 and DAZ2, two zinc finger proteins regulated by DUO1, which physically interact with the corepressor TOPLESS. The DUO1-DAZ1/DAZ2 regulatory module thus implicates repressive mechanisms in plant sperm cell development. The production of the sperm cells in angiosperms requires coordination of cell division and cell differentiation. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the germline-specific MYB protein DUO1 integrates these processes, but the regulatory hierarchy in which DUO1 functions is unknown. Here, we identify an essential role for two germline-specific DUO1 target genes, DAZ1 and DAZ2, which encode EAR motif–containing C2H2-type zinc finger proteins. We show that DAZ1/DAZ2 are required for germ cell division and for the proper accumulation of mitotic cyclins. Importantly, DAZ1/DAZ2 are sufficient to promote G2- to M-phase transition and germ cell division in the absence of DUO1. DAZ1/DAZ2 are also required for DUO1-dependent cell differentiation and are essential for gamete fusion at fertilization. We demonstrate that the two EAR motifs in DAZ1/DAZ2 mediate their function in the male germline and are required for transcriptional repression and for physical interaction with the corepressor TOPLESS. Our findings uncover an essential module in a regulatory hierarchy that drives mitotic transition in male germ cells and implicates gene repression pathways in sperm cell formation and fertility.

Manipulation of sinapine, choline and betaine accumulation in Arabidopsis seed: towards improving the nutritional value of the meal and enhancing the seedling performance under environmental stresses in oilseed crops.

Sinapoylcholine (sinapine) is the most abundant antinutritional phenolic compound in cruciferous seeds. The quaternary ammonium compounds, choline, betaine and N,N-dimethylglycine, reside along a biosynthetic pathway linked to the synthesis of membrane phospholipids and neurotransmitters with various biological functions. In chicken, choline intake is required for optimal egg-laying performance and a choline supplement in diet is positively correlated with weight gains. A key step in sinapine biosynthesis is catalyzed by sinapoylglucose: choline sinapoyltransferase (SCT; EC 2.3.1.91) to form an ester linkage with sinapoylglucose and choline. The objective of this work was to reduce the sinapine content and simultaneously enhance free choline levels in cruciferous seeds. We report here the characterization of an Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutant lacking SCT activity in the seed. The sct mutant seeds contain less than 1% of sinapine and a more than 2-fold increase in free choline compared with wild type. We further expressed a choline oxidase (COX; EC 1.1.3.17) gene from Arthrobacter pascens in the Arabidopsis sct mutant and wild-type background using a napin gene promoter to convert free choline into betaine, an effective stress-alleviating compound in plants. Betaine was not detected in WT or sct mutant seeds. The sct+COX seeds contain nearly 2-fold greater levels of betaine relative to WT+COX seeds, demonstrating a positive correlation between endogenous choline and betaine production. In contrast, stable comparable levels of free choline were detected between sct+COX and WT+COX plants suggesting choline homeostasis likely prevent high levels of betaine production in the seed of transgenic COX plants.

Small yet effective: the ethylene responsive element binding factor-associated amphiphilic repression (EAR) motif.

The Ethylene-responsive element binding factor-associated Amphiphilic Repression (EAR) motif is a small yet distinct regulatory motif that is conserved in many plant transcriptional regulator (TR) proteins associated with diverse biological functions. We have previously established a list of high-confidence Arabidopsis EAR repressors, the EAR repressome, comprising 219 TRs belonging to 21 different TR families. This class of proteins and the sequence context of the EAR motif exhibited a high degree of conservation across evolutionarily diverse plant species. Our comprehensive genome-wide analysis enabled refining EAR motifs as comprising either LxLxL or DLNxxP. Comparing the representation of these sequence signatures in TRs to that of other repressor motifs we show that the EAR motif is the one most frequently represented, detected in 10 to 25% of the TRs from diverse plant species. The mechanisms involved in regulation of EAR motif function and the cellular fates of EAR repressors are currently not well understood. Our earlier analysis had implicated amino acid residues flanking the EAR motifs in regulation of their functionality. Here, we present additional evidence supporting possible regulation of EAR motif function by phosphorylation of integral or adjacent Ser and/or Thr residues. Additionally, we discuss potential novel roles of EAR motifs in plant-pathogen interaction and processes other than transcriptional repression.

TMV-Gate vectors: Gateway compatible tobacco mosaic virus based expression vectors for functional analysis of proteins

Plant viral expression vectors are advantageous for high-throughput functional characterization studies of genes due to their capability for rapid, high-level transient expression of proteins. We have constructed a series of tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) based vectors that are compatible with Gateway technology to enable rapid assembly of expression constructs and exploitation of ORFeome collections. In addition to the potential of producing recombinant protein at grams per kilogram FW of leaf tissue, these vectors facilitate either N- or C-terminal fusions to a broad series of epitope tag(s) and fluorescent proteins. We demonstrate the utility of these vectors in affinity purification, immunodetection and subcellular localisation studies. We also apply the vectors to characterize protein-protein interactions and demonstrate their utility in screening plant pathogen effectors. Given its broad utility in defining protein properties, this vector series will serve as a useful resource to expedite gene characterization efforts.

A strategy for targeting recombinant proteins to protein storage vacuoles by fusion to Brassica napus napin in napin-depleted seeds.

Seeds are capable of accumulating high levels of seed storage proteins (SSP), as well as heterologous proteins under certain conditions. Arabidopsis thaliana was used to develop a strategy to deplete seeds of an endogenous SSP and then replenish them with the same protein fused to a heterologous protein. In several other studies, competition with endogenous SSP for space and metabolic resources was shown to affect the accumulation of recombinant proteins in seeds. We used RNAi to reduce the expression of the five napin genes and deplete the seeds of this SSP. Targeting a recombinant protein to a vacuole or structure within the seed where it can be protected from cytosolic proteases can also promote its accumulation. To achieve this, a synthetic Brassica napus napin gene (Bn napin) was designed that was both impervious to the A. thaliana napin (At napin) RNAi construct and permitted fusion to a heterologous protein, in this case green fluorescent protein (GFP). GFP was placed in several strategic locations within Bn napin with consideration to maintaining structure, processing sites and possible vacuolar targeting signals. In transgenic A. thaliana plants, GFP was strongly localized to the seed protein storage vacuole in all Bn napin fusion configurations tested, but not when expressed alone. This SSP depletion-replenishment strategy outlined here would be applicable to expression of recombinant proteins in industrial crops that generally have large repertoires of endogenous SSP genes.