Kia J. Jackson

Differential Role of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Subunits in Physical and Affective Nicotine Withdrawal Signs

It has been suggested that the negative effects associated with nicotine withdrawal promote continued tobacco use and contribute to the high relapse rate of smoking behaviors. Thus, it is important to understand the receptor-mediated mechanisms underlying nicotine withdrawal to aid in the development of more successful smoking cessation therapies. The effects of nicotine withdrawal are mediated through nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs); however, the role of nAChRs in nicotine withdrawal remains unclear. Therefore, we used mecamylamine-precipitated, spontaneous, and conditioned place aversion (CPA) withdrawal models to measure physical and affective signs of nicotine withdrawal in various nAChR knockout (KO) mice. β2, α7, and α5 nAChR KO mice were chronically exposed to nicotine through surgically implanted osmotic minipumps. Our results show a loss of anxiety-related behavior and a loss of aversion in the CPA model in β2 KO mice, whereas α7 and α5 KO mice displayed a loss of nicotine withdrawal-induced hyperalgesia and a reduction in somatic signs, respectively. These results suggest that β2-containing nAChRs are involved in the affective signs of nicotine withdrawal, whereas non-β2-containing nAChRs are more closely associated with physical signs of nicotine withdrawal; thus, the nAChR subtype composition may play an important role in the involvement of specific subtypes in nicotine withdrawal.

Role of α5 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Pharmacological and Behavioral Effects of Nicotine in Mice

Incorporation of the α5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit can greatly influence nAChR function without altering receptor number. Although few animal studies have assessed the role of the α5 nAChR in nicotine-mediated behaviors, recent evidence suggests an association between polymorphisms in the α5 nAChR gene and nicotine dependence phenotypes in humans. Thus, additional studies are imperative to elucidate the role and function of the α5 nAChR subunit in nicotine dependence. Using α5(−/−) mice, the current study aimed to examine the role of α5 nAChRs in the initial pharmacological effects of nicotine, nicotine reward using the conditioned place preference model, and the discriminative effects of nicotine using a two-lever drug discrimination model. 86Rb+ efflux and 125I-epibatidine binding assays were conducted to examine the effect of α5 nAChR subunit deletion on expression and activity of functional nAChRs. Results show that α5(−/−) mice are less sensitive to the initial effects of nicotine in antinociception, locomotor activity, and hypothermia measures and that the α5 nAChR is involved in nicotine reward. Alternatively, α5(−/−) mice did not differ from wild-type littermates in sensitivity to the discriminative stimulus effects of nicotine. Furthermore, deletion of the α5 nAChR subunit resulted in a statistically significant decrease in function in the thalamus and hindbrain, but the decreases noted in spinal cord were not statistically significant. Receptor number was unaltered in all areas tested. Taken together, results of the study suggest that α5 nAChRs are involved in nicotine-mediated behaviors relevant to development of nicotine dependence.

The Role of α6-Containing Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Nicotine Reward and Withdrawal

The α6 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunit is involved in nicotine-stimulated dopamine release in the striatum. It is expressed in brain regions and coexpressed with nAChR subtypes implicated in nicotine dependence behaviors; hence, this subunit may play a role in nicotine dependence. Using the α6-selective antagonist α-conotoxin H9A;L15A (MII[H9A;L15A]), we determined the role of α6* nAChRs in the pharmacological and behavioral effects of nicotine. We measured effects of pretreatment with MII[H9A;L15A] on analgesia, locomotion, and body temperature after a single injection of nicotine. Effects of MII[H9A;L15A] on nicotine reward were measured using the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. We further measured physical (somatic signs and hyperalgesia) and affective [anxiety-related behavior and conditioned place aversion (CPA)] nicotine withdrawal behaviors after extended nicotine exposure. Results showed that MII[H9A;L15A] did not block acute nicotine effects on the behaviors measured. Conversely, MII[H9A:l15A] blocked the expression of nicotine CPP, as well as withdrawal-associated CPA and anxiety-related behavior in the elevated plus maze, but not withdrawal-induced somatic signs or hyperalgesia. These results suggest a role for the α6 nAChR subunit in nicotine reward and affective nicotine withdrawal but not acute nicotine-induced or physical withdrawal behaviors.

The α3β4* nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subtype mediates nicotine reward and physical nicotine withdrawal signs independently of the α5 subunit in the mouse.

The 15q25 gene cluster contains genes that code for the α5, α3, and β4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChRs) subunits, and in human genetic studies, has shown the most robust association with smoking behavior and nicotine dependence to date. The limited available animal studies implicate a role for the α5 and β4 nAChR subunits in nicotine dependence and withdrawal; however studies focusing on the behavioral role of the α3β4* nAChR receptor subtype in nicotine dependence are lacking. Because of the apparent role of the α3β4* nAChR subtype in nicotine dependence, the goal of the current study was to better evaluate the involvement of this subtype in nicotine mediated behavioral responses. Using the selective α3β4* nAChR antagonist, α-conotoxin AuIB, we assessed the role of α3β4* nAChRs in acute nicotine, nicotine reward, and physical and affective nicotine withdrawal. Because α5 has also been implicated in nicotine dependence behaviors in mice and can form functional receptors with α3β4*, we also evaluated the role of the α3β4α5* nAChR subtype in nicotine reward and somatic nicotine withdrawal signs by blocking the α3β4* nAChR subtype in α5 nAChR knockout mice with AuIB. AuIB had no significant effect on acute nicotine behaviors, but dose-dependently attenuated nicotine reward and physical withdrawal signs, with no significant effect in affective withdrawal measures. Interestingly, AuIB also attenuated nicotine reward and somatic signs in α5 nAChR knockout mice. This study shows that α3β4* nAChRs mediate nicotine reward and physical nicotine withdrawal, but not acute nicotine behaviors or affective nicotine withdrawal signs in mice. The α5 subunit is not required in the receptor assembly to mediate these effects. Our findings suggest an important role for the α3β4* nAChR subtype in nicotine reward and physical aspects of the nicotine withdrawal syndrome.

Characterization of pharmacological and behavioral differences to nicotine in C57Bl/6 and DBA/2 mice.

Approximately 50-70% of the risk for developing nicotine dependence is attributed to genetics; therefore, it is of great significance to characterize the genetic mechanisms involved in nicotine reinforcement and dependence in hopes of generating better smoking cessation therapies. The overall goal of these studies was to characterize behavioral and pharmacological responses to nicotine in C57Bl/6 (B6) and DBA/2 (D2) mice, two inbred strains commonly used for genetic studies on behavioral traits. B6 and D2 mice where subjected to a battery of behavioral tests to measure nicotines acute effects, calcium-mediated antinociceptive responses, tolerance to chronic treatment with osmotic mini pumps, and following three days of nicotine withdrawal. In general, D2 mice were less sensitive than B6 mice to the acute effects of nicotine, but were more sensitive to blockade of nicotine-induced antinociceptive responses by a calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) inhibitor. B6, but not D2 mice, developed tolerance to nicotine and nicotine conditioned place preference (CPP). While B6 and D2 mice both expressed some physical withdrawal signs, affective withdrawal signs were not evident in D2 mice. These results provide a thorough, simultaneous evaluation of the pharmacological and behavioral differences to experimenter-administered nicotine as measured in several behavioral tests of aspects that contribute to smoking behavior. The B6 and D2 strains show wide phenotypic differences in their responses to acute or chronic nicotine. These results suggest that these strains may be useful progenitors for future genetic studies on nicotine behaviors across batteries of mouse lines such as the BXD recombinant inbred panel.

The neuropeptide galanin and variants in the GalR1 gene are associated with nicotine dependence.

The neuropeptide galanin and its receptors are expressed in brain regions implicated in drug dependence. Indeed, several lines of evidence support a role for galanin in modulating the effects of drugs of abuse, including morphine, cocaine, amphetamine, and alcohol. Despite these findings, the role of galanin and its receptors in the effects of nicotine is largely underexplored. Here, using mouse models of nicotine reward and withdrawal, we show that there is a significant correlation between mecamylamine-precipitated nicotine withdrawal somatic signs and basal galanin or galanin receptor 1 (GALR1) expression in mesolimbocortical dopamine regions across the BXD battery of recombinant inbred mouse lines. The non-peptide galanin receptor agonist, galnon, also blocks nicotine rewarding effects and reverses mecamylamine-precipitated nicotine withdrawal signs in ICR mice. Additionally, we conducted a meta-analysis using smoking information from six European-American and African-American data sets. In support of our animal data, results from the association study show that variants in the GALR1 gene are associated with a protective effect in nicotine dependence (ND). Taken together, our data suggest that galanin has a protective role against progression to ND, and these effects may be mediated through GALR1.

The role of various nicotinic receptor subunits and factors influencing nicotine conditioned place aversion.

Affective nicotine withdrawal symptoms are of major motivational significance in contributing to relapse and continued tobacco use; thus, it is important to understand the molecular and receptor-mediated mechanisms that mediate affective withdrawal behaviors. Previous work using the conditioned place aversion (CPA) model has shown that nicotine withdrawal is associated with a negative affective state, and place aversion to previously neutral environmental stimuli represents a motivational component in the maintenance of drug use. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of genotype, sex, and age and to extend previous studies examining the role of various nicotinic receptor subtypes in the development of nicotine withdrawal aversion using the CPA model. Mice were chronically treated with nicotine and conditioned for two days with various nicotinic receptor antagonists. The major findings showed that mecamylamine and dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE), but not hexamethonium or methyllycaconitine citrate (MLA), precipitated significant aversion in the CPA model. This pharmacological data support our previous knockout mouse data suggesting that nicotine CPA is mediated by central beta2-containing nicotinic receptors, but not alpha7 nicotinic receptors. Further, we show that sex and age are contributing factors to the development of nicotine CPA. Overall, the results of our study provide some insight into pharmacological and behavioral factors involved in the development of an aversive motivational component associated with nicotine withdrawal.

Variants in the 15q25 gene cluster are associated with risk for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Background Rates of tobacco smoking are significantly higher in patients with schizophrenia compared with the general population. The underlying mechanism for this comorbidity is unclear. One hypothesis is that there are common genetic factors that predispose to both nicotine dependence (ND) and schizophrenia. To investigate this hypothesis, we examined the association of the 15q25 gene cluster, the most significant candidate region to date implicated in ND and smoking behavior, with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Methods Five variants in the 15q25 gene cluster (rs951266, rs16969968, rs1051730, rs8040868, and rs17477223) were selected to test for association with schizophrenia diagnosis, bipolar disorder diagnosis, and the presence of negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Effects of the variants on 15q25 gene expression were analyzed using publically available postmortem brain expression data. Results A meta-analysis revealed four markers associated with risk for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder (rs951266, rs16969968, rs8040868, and rs17477223), and with the presence of negative symptoms of schizophrenia (rs951266, rs1051730, rs8040868, and rs17477223). The associations were in the same direction as that found for ND. Gene expression analysis indicated an association between genotypes of the rs1051730 variant and CHRNA5 expression in brain and peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and with the rs16969968 and rs17477223 variants in brain. Conclusion Variants in the 15q25 gene cluster are associated with risk for schizophrenia/bipolar illness, negative symptoms of schizophrenia, and influence CHRNA5 expression in the brain and peripheral blood mononuclear cells. These results are consistent with the notion that there are genetic mechanisms common to schizophrenia, ND, and bipolar disorder.

β2 Subunit-Containing Nicotinic Receptors Mediate Acute Nicotine-Induced Activation of Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II-Dependent Pathways in Vivo

Nicotine is the addictive component of tobacco, and successful smoking cessation therapies must address the various processes that contribute to nicotine addiction. Thus, understanding the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes and subsequent molecular cascades activated after nicotine exposure is of the utmost importance in understanding the progression of nicotine dependence. One possible candidate is the calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) pathway. Substrates of this kinase include the vesicle-associated protein synapsin I and the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB). The goal of these studies was to examine these postreceptor mechanisms after acute nicotine treatment in vivo. We first show that administration of nicotine increases CaMKII activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens (NAc), and amygdala. In β2 nAChR knockout (KO) mice, nicotine does not induce an increase in kinase activity, phosphorylated (p)Synapsin I, or pCREB. In contrast, α7 nAChR KO mice show nicotine-induced increases in CaMKII activity and pCREB, similar to their wild-type littermates. Moreover, we show that when animals are pretreated with the CaMKII inhibitors 4-[(2S)-2-[(5-isoquinolinylsulfonyl) methylamino]-3-oxo-3-(4-phenyl-1-piperazinyl)propyl]phenyl isoquinolinesulfonic acid ester (KN-62) and N-[2-[[[3-(4-chlorophenyl)-2 propenyl]methylamino]methyl]phenyl]-N-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-methoxybenzenesulphonamide (KN-93), nicotine-induced increase in the kinase activity and pCREB was attenuated in the VTA and NAc, whereas pretreatment with (2-[N-(4-methoxybenzenesulfonyl)]amino-N-(4-chlorocinnamyl)-N-methylbenzylamine, phosphate) (KN-92), the inactive analog, did not alter the nicotine-induced increase in pCREB. Taken together, these data suggest that the nicotine-induced increase in CaMKII activity may correlate with the nicotine-induced increase in pSynapsin I and pCREB in the VTA and NAc via β2 subunit-containing nAChRs.

Effects of orally-bioavailable short-acting kappa opioid receptor-selective antagonist LY2456302 on nicotine withdrawal in mice.

Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) signaling has been implicated in mediating behavioral and biochemical effects associated with drug dependence. The most commonly used KOR antagonists, norbinaltorphimine (norBNI) and (3R)-7-Hydroxy-N{(1S)-1-{[(3R,4R)-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethyl-1-piperidinyl]methyl}-2-methylpropyl}-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-3-isoquinoline-carboxamide (JDTic), have provided a wealth of information in this area; however, the delayed onset and long-lasting effects of these antagonists complicate experimental design and interpretation of results, and make them less than ideal for clinical studies. Initial studies with the recently developed KOR antagonist, LY2456302, show that the compound is a short acting, high-affinity, selective KOR antagonist with therapeutic potential for mood disorders and ethanol use in animal models, and is well tolerated in humans. The goal of the current study was to evaluate the effectiveness of LY2456302 in alleviating the nicotine withdrawal syndrome in mice. Mice were chronically treated with nicotine for 14 days and physical and affective nicotine withdrawal signs were measured using a spontaneous nicotine withdrawal model and conditioned place aversion (CPA) following pre-treatment with LY2456302, administered orally. Vehicle treated nicotine withdrawn mice displayed significant anxiety-related behavior, somatic signs, hyperalgesia, and CPA. Similar to previous studies with norBNI and JDTic, LY2456302 alleviated the nicotine withdrawal syndrome, as evidenced by decreased expression of nicotine withdrawal induced anxiety-related behavior, somatic signs, and CPA, and increased hotplate latency in nicotine withdrawn mice following pre-treatment. Given the current results, and with its favorable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile, LY2456302 may be a useful therapeutic agent for treatment of multiple aspects of the nicotine withdrawal syndrome.