Kim Bartholomew

Avoidance of Intimacy: An Attachment Perspective:

A basic principle of attachment theory is that early attachment relationships with caregivers provide the prototype for later social relations. Working within an attachment framework, a new 4-group model of characteristic attachment styles in adulthood is proposed. In particular, two forms of adult avoidance of intimacy are differentiated: a fearful style that is characterized by a conscious desire for social contact which is inhibited by fears of its consequences, and a dismissing style that is characterized by a defensive denial of the need or desire for greater social contact. This distinction corresponds to two differing models of the self: people who fearfully avoid intimacy view themselves as undeserving of the love and support of others, and people who dismiss intimacy possess a positive model of the self that minimizes the subjective awareness of distress or social needs. The emotional and interpersonal ramifications of the two proposed styles of adult avoidance are discussed.

Hierarchies of Attachment Relationships in Young Adulthood

This study examined the characteristics of attachment hierarchies in young adulthood. Multiple components were used to assess attachment bonds: using the attachment figure as a safe haven in times of distress, using him or her as a secure base from which to venture out independently, having a strong emotional tie with the person regardless of whether the tie is positive, negative, or mixed, seeking to be in close proximity to the person, and mourning the loss of the person. The Attachment Network Questionnaire (ANQ) was developed to measure multiple adult attachment relationships and to examine the characteristics of attachment hierarchies. 223 university students completed the ANQ by listing their significant relationships and then ranking these persons in terms of the various components of attachment. A subset of the participants was followed up to examine the one month test-retest reliability of the ANQ. Young adult participants were found, on average, to have 5.38 attachment figures, including family members, romantic partners, and friends. The figures identified included both secure and insecure attachments. In addition, the ANQ demonstrated adequate test-retest reliability over one month.

The intergenerational transmission of relationship violence.

This study explored the intergenerational transmission of violence in a community sample. A telephone survey of 1,249 adults in the City of Vancouver assessed family-of-origin violence (father to mother, mother to father, father to self, and mother to self), as well as physical and psychological abuse in intimate relationships. All forms of family-of-origin violence were predictive of all forms of relationship abuse, consistent with a general social learning model of relationship violence. There was no evidence of gender-specific or role-specific patterns of transmission. For example, father-to-mother violence was not specifically predictive of mens perpetration and womens victimization in adult relationships. Nor was parent-to-self violence more predictive of victimization than perpetration. The methodological and theoretical implications of these findings are discussed.

Gender Nonconformity, Childhood Rejection, and Adult Attachment: A Study of Gay Men

Several childhood factors are reported to be associated with a homosexual orientation in men, including gender nonconformity and rejection by parents and peers. The purpose of this study was to explore the associations between these childhood factors and attachment anxiety (the tendency to experience anxiety regarding potential loss and rejection in close relationships) and attachment avoidance (the tendency to avoid versus seek out closeness in relationships) in gay and bisexual men. A community sample of 191 gay and bisexual men completed questionnaires and an attachment interview. Gender nonconformity was significantly associated with paternal, maternal, and peer rejection in childhood. In addition, paternal and peer rejection, but not maternal rejection, independently predicted attachment anxiety. Peer rejection and, to a lesser extent, paternal rejection mediated the association between gender nonconformity and attachment anxiety. Finally, peer rejection mediated the association between paternal rejection and attachment avoidance. Findings highlight the role of gender nonconformity in contributing to childhood rejection and the importance of peer relationships in the socialization of gay men.

When Loving Means Hurting: An Exploration of Attachment and Intimate Abuse In a Community Sample

Intimate relationship abuse can be understood by considering two critical tenets of attachment. First, attachment fulfills a basic need for survival. Thus, the tenacity of the attachment bond is independent of relationship quality. Second, individuals whose attachment needs have been frustrated may strike out violently to regain proximity to the perceived loss of an intimate partner. We examined how individual differences in attachment were associated with womens and mens relationship abuse. A telephone survey assessed levels of psychological and physical abuse in 1249 Vancouver residents. Of these, 128 completed an attachment interview exploring their interpersonal relationships. Hierarchical regressions revealed that attachment variables contributed significant variance to prediction of both receipt and perpetration of psychological and physical abuse, with preoccupied attachment acting as an independent predictor. There was no evidence that gender moderated these associations. The findings suggest that attachment preoccupation in either partner may increase likelihood of abuse in couples.

He Loves Me; He Loves Me Not: Attachment and Separation Resolution of Abused Women

Working within an attachment perspective, we examined womens success at emotional separation from abusive partners. The attachment patterns of 63 abused women were assessed shortly after having left their abusive relationships. Six months later, their perceptions, feelings, and behaviors regarding the separation were assessed, to determine an overall level of separation resolution. As expected, attachment patterns associated with a negative self model were overrepresented (88% of the sample had a predominant pattern of fearful or preoccupied attachment). Further, preoccupation was associated with shorter relationship length, more frequent previous separations from the abusive relationship, continuing emotional involvement with partners after separation, and more frequent sexual contact with partners. These findings suggest that preoccupation may be a risk factor in successful separation resolution from abusive relationships.

Accommodation and Attachment Representations in Young Couples

In a prospective study, we examined the relationship between internal representations of attachment and accommodation. Participants consisted of both members of established young couples (N = 128; mean age = 24.4 years at time 1; mean relationship length = 47 months at time 1). Participants were administered the Peer Attachment Interview and a relationship satisfaction scale twice over 8 months. At time 2, participants completed the Accommodation Scale to assess responses to potentially destructive behavior by romantic partners. Current and previous attachment representations predicted the use of accommodation strategies. In particular, security was associated with the use of constructive accommodation strategies and fearfulness was associated with the use of destructive accommodation strategies. With few exceptions, the pattern of correlations between attachment ratings and accommodation responses was the same after the effects of relationship satisfaction were partialled out. The results suggest that accommodation may be one avenue through which attachment representations contribute to the quality of relationships.

Intimate Violence in Male Same-Sex Relationships

Despite findings suggesting a high prevalence of violence in male same-sex relationships, little is known about the characteristics of this violence. This study explored the general nature of male same-sex intimate violence. The sample consisted of 69 gay and bisexual men, chosen from a randomly selected community sample, who reported at least 1 violent episode in an interview exploring their intimate relationships. Mens descriptions of the most severe incident in the most recent violent relationship were coded from the taped interviews. Patterns of intimate violence varied widely, including a range from mild to severe violence, and situations of unidirectional and bidirectional violence. In the vast majority of cases, violence was an escalation of ongoing conflict, involved bidirectional emotional abuse, and was more expressive than instrumental in nature. Difficulties in conflict resolution and attachment fears appeared to better explain the occurrence of violence than did the intent to control ones partner.

Adult Attachment Patterns and Social Support Processes

In this chapter, we explore the links between individual differences in adult attachment and social support processes. First, we review attachment theory and research, and the theoretical and empirical links between attachment and social support in adulthood. We then present a model of the processes through which attachment may impact upon various aspects of social support. Drawing on this model, we describe how we expect each of four distinct attachment patterns to be associated with social support processes, incorporating case studies to illustrate our hypotheses. Finally, we discuss the limitations of our model.

Correlates of partner abuse in male same-sex relationships.

We investigated correlates of partner abuse in male same-sex relationships in a randomly selected community sample (N = 186). We included factors associated with abuse in heterosexual relationships, as well as factors of relevance to gay relationships. We assessed perpetration and receipt of partner abuse to examine whether variables were associated independently with abuse perpetration and/or receipt. Correlates of same-sex partner abuse were largely parallel to established correlates of heterosexual abuse. Income, education, and attachment orientation were associated with bidirectional partner abuse, and family violence and substance use were uniquely associated with victimization. Further, there were factors unique to same-sex partner abuse; HIV status and public outness were associated with bidirectional partner abuse, and internalized homophobia was uniquely associated with abuse perpetration.