Kim Witte

Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model

The fear appeal literature is diverse and inconsistent. Existing fear appeal theories explain the positive linear results occurring in many studies, but are unable to explain the boomerang or curvilinear results occurring in other studies. The present work advances a theory integrating previous theoretical perspectives (i.e., Janis, 1967; Leventhal, 1970; Rogers, 1975, 1983) that is based on Leventhals (1970) danger control/fear control framework. The proposed fear appeal theory, called the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), expands on previous approaches in three ways: (a) by explaining why fear appeals fail; (b) by re‐incorporating fear as a central variable; and (c) by specifying the relationship between threat and efficacy in propositional forms. Specific propositions are given to guide future research.

A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns

The fear appeal literature is examined in a comprehensive synthesis using meta-analytical techniques. The meta-analysis suggests that strong fear appeals produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are more persuasive than low or weak fear appeals. The results also indicate that fear appeals motivate adaptive danger control actions such as message acceptance and maladaptive fear control actions such as defensive avoidance or reactance. It appears that strong fear appeals and high-efficacy messages produce the greatest behavior change, whereas strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses. Future directions and practical implications are provided.

Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model (EPPM)

Fear appeals have the potential to be potent persuasive strategies. However, they often backfire. Previous research has focused primarily on the factors leading to fear appeal successes and neglected the factors associated with fear appeal failures. Utilizing a recently developed fear appeal theory, the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), a study was undertaken to explore the cognitive and emotional mechanisms underlying the success and failure of fear appeals in the context of AIDS prevention. The study results offered general support for the EPPM and indicated that (a) the emotion fear is associated with fear control responses and is not directly related to danger control responses, (b) perceptions (or cognitions) about the recommended response are associated with danger control responses and unrelated to fear control responses, and (c) when efficacy beliefs are strong, perceived threat mediates the relationship between the emotion fear and behavior. Overall, it appears that cognitions lead to fear ...

Predicting Risk Behaviors: Development and Validation of a Diagnostic Scale

The goal of this study was to develop and validate the Risk Behavior Diagnosis (RBD) Scale for use by health care providers and practitioners interested in promoting healthy behaviors. Theoretically guided by the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM; a fear appeal theory), the RBD scale was designed to work in conjunction with an easy-to-use formula to determine which types of health risk messages would be most appropriate for a given individual or audience. Because some health risk messages promote behavior change and others backfire, this type of scale offers guidance to practitioners on how to develop the best persuasive message possible to motivate healthy behaviors. The results of the study demonstrate the RBD scale to have a high degree of content, construct, and predictive validity. Specific examples and practical suggestions are offered to facilitate use of the scale for health practitioners.

Fear as motivator, fear as inhibitor: Using the extended parallel process model to explain fear appeal successes and failures

Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the nature of fear; reviews the historical origins of fear appeals; and describes the extended parallel process model (EPPM). Fear is one of the basic human emotions. The elicitation of fear may occur following the appraisal of a threatening situation or stimulus with or without an individuals conscious intention or awareness. Fear may be expressed physiologically (as arousal), through language behavior (verbal self-reports), or through overt acts (facial expressions). According to the EPPM, fear-arousing messages may initiate two appraisals—(1) appraisal of the threat and (2) appraisal of the efficacy of the recommended response. These appraisals, in turn, produce one of three responses to the message: no response, acceptance, or rejection. Specifically, individuals first appraise the severity of the threat and their susceptibility to the threat in an additive manner when exposed to a fear appeal. Individual differences, such as worldviews, trait variables, or prior experiences do not directly influence outcomes, according to the EPPM. Instead, individual differences are posited to influence perceptions of threat and efficacy only, which then influence outcomes.

Preventing the Spread of Genital Warts: Using Fear Appeals to Promote Self-Protective Behaviors

A fear appeal campaign to decrease the spread of genital warts was conducted and evaluated. Theoretically guided by the Extended Parallel Process Model, this field study illustrated why fear appeal campaigns often appear to fail in public health arenas. Five hypotheses, which predicted when and under what conditions fear appeal campaigns would fail or succeed, were tested and supported. The results demonstrated that fear appeals can be powerful persuasive devices if they induce strong perceptions of threat and fear (which motivate action) and if they induce strong perceptions of efficacy with regard to a recommended response (which channels the action in a health protective direction). Recommendations to researchers and public health practitioners are offered.

The Role of Threat and Efficacy in AIDS Prevention

Studies examining the role of fear, threat, and efficacy, in promoting protective-health behavior changes have yielded diverse results. These constructs were examined in a theoretically-based 3 (low, moderate, high threat) × 2 (low, high efficacy) factorial experiment promoting condom use to prevent HIV-transmission. Pre-screened sexually-active college students not involved in long-term relationships (N = 146) served as subjects. As predicted, when threat of AIDS was high and condom efficacy low, people failed to use condoms; when both threat and efficacy were high, people reported more condom use. The more fearful people were of AIDS, the more they denied its threat and the more manipulated they felt. Overall, the results indicated that threatening messages can motivate behavior change, as long as the recommended response is portrayed as effective. This study is useful for public health practitioners in that specific and practical guidelines for campaign message development are offered.

Addressing Cultural Orientations in Fear Appeals: Promoting AIDS-Protective Behaviors among Mexican Immigrant and African American Adolescents and American and Taiwanese College Students

Fear appeals threatening the individual have been shown to be powerful persuasive devices in the cultures where they have been studied. However, most fear appeal research has been conducted with members of individualist cultures. Individualist cultures place self-needs above group concerns, while collectivist cultures place group needs above self-concerns. Little is known about the effectiveness of fear appeals (or other persuasive strategies) in collectivist cultures. Two studies assessed the effectiveness of AIDS-prevention fear appeals threatening the self versus fear appeals threatening the group (i.e., family) on members of individualist and collectivist cultures. The first study focuses on African American and Mexican immigrant junior high school youth. The second study focuses on U.S. and Taiwanese college undergraduates. The results indicated that fear appeals should address cultural orientation (i.e., individualist versus collectivist orientation) to achieve maximum effectiveness. The results also indicate that one cannot assume cultural orientation based on ethnicity.Fear appeals threatening the individual have been shown to be powerful persuasive devices in the cultures where they have been studied. However, most fear appeal research has been conducted with members of individualist cultures. Individualist cultures place self-needs above group concerns, while collectivist cultures place group needs above self-concerns. Little is known about the effectiveness of fear appeals (or other persuasive strategies) in collectivist cultures. Two studies assessed the effectiveness of AIDS-prevention fear appeals threatening the self versus fear appeals threatening the group (i.e., family) on members of individualist and collectivist cultures. The first study focuses on African American and Mexican immigrant junior high school youth. The second study focuses on U.S. and Taiwanese college undergraduates. The results indicated that fear appeals should address cultural orientation (i.e., individualist versus collectivist orientation) to achieve maximum effectiveness. The results also indicate that one cannot assume cultural orientation based on ethnicity.

Generating Effective Risk Messages: How Scary Should Your Risk Communication Be?

No consensus exists on how to develop effective risk messages that motivate appropriate action yet do not unduly frighten people. A useful framework for developing risk messages is the extended parallel process model (EPPM). The EPPM suggests that when people are faced with health or environmental risks, they are motivated to either control the danger or control their fear. This chapter offers a description of how the EPPM can explain public responses to risk messages, and then reports on two pilot studies that illustrate how existing audience perceptions can be used in the design and generation of effective risk management messages.

A Theoretically Based Evaluation of HIV / AIDS Prevention Campaigns Along the Trans-Africa Highway in Kenya

Print HIV/AIDS prevention campaign materials (e.g., posters, pamphlets, stickers) from 10 public health organizations in Kenya were evaluated according to the Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM), a health behavior change theory based on the fear appeal literature, at various sites along the Trans-Africa Highway in Kenya. Three groups each of commercial sex workers (CSWs), truck drivers (TDs) and their assistants (ASSTs), and young men (YM) who live and work at the truck stops participated in focus group discussions where reactions to the campaign materials were gathered according to this theoretical base. Reactions to campaign materials varied substantially, according to the poster or pamphlet viewed. Overall, most participants wanted more detailed information about (a) the proper way to use condoms, (b) ideas for how to negotiate condom use with reluctant partners, and (c) accurate information on symptoms of AIDS and what to do once one contracted HIV. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses of the campaign materials are reported.