Kimmo Lahtonen

Oxygen adsorption-induced nanostructures and island formation on Cu{100}: Bridging the gap between the formation of surface confined oxygen chemisorption layer and oxide formation

Surface oxidation of Cu(100) has been investigated by variable temperature scanning tunneling microscopy and quantitative x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy as a function of O(2) pressure (8.0x10(-7) and 3.7x10(-2) mbar) at 373 K. Three distinct phases in the initial oxidation of Cu(100) have been observed: (1) the formation of the mixed oxygen chemisorption layer consisting of Cu(100)-c(2x2)-O and Cu(100)-(2sqrt[2]xsqrt[2])R45 degrees -O domains, (2) the growth of well-ordered (2sqrt[2]xsqrt[2])R45 degrees-O islands, and (3) the onset of subsurface oxide formation leading to the growth of disordered Cu(2)O. We demonstrate that the (2sqrt[2]xsqrt[2])R45 degrees-O reconstruction is relatively inert in the low pressure regime. The nucleation and growth of well-ordered two-dimensional Cu-O islands between two (2sqrt[2]xsqrt[2])R45 degrees-O domains is revealed by time-resolved scanning tunneling microscopy experiments up to 0.5 ML of oxygen. The formation of these islands and their nanostructure appear to be critical to the onset of further migration of oxygen atoms deeper into copper and subsequent Cu(2)O formation in the high pressure regime. The reactivity of each phase is correlated with the surface morphology and the role of the various island structures in the oxide growth is discussed.

Nanoscale oxidation of Cu(100): Oxide morphology and surface reactivity

Surface oxidation of Cu(100) in O(2) has been investigated in situ by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, x-ray induced Auger electron spectroscopy (XAES), and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) as a function of surface temperature (T(S)=303-423 K) and O(2) pressure (p(O(2) )=3.7 x 10(-2)-213 mbars). Morphology of the oxide on the surface and in the near surface layers is characterized by utilizing STM and the inelastic electron background of the XAES O KLL signal. Analysis of the peak shape of the XAES Cu LMM facilitates the quantification of Cu, Cu(2)O, and CuO surface concentrations. The authors conclude that the surface oxidation of Cu(100) proceeds in three distinct steps: (1) Dissociative adsorption of O(2) and the onset of Cu-(2 square root 2 x square root 2)R45 degrees -O (theta(O)=0.5 ML) surface reconstruction, (2) initial formation of Cu(2)O and the appearance of 1.8 A high elongated islands that also adopt the Cu-(2 square root 2 x square root 2)R45 degrees -O structure, and (3) formation of highly corrugated Cu-O islands which together with the surface reconstruction strongly enhance the reactivity of the surface towards further oxide formation. Both Cu(2)O and CuO formations are enhanced by increased surface temperature, but no pressure dependence can be seen.

Instrumentation and analytical methods of an x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy–scanning tunneling microscopy surface analysis system for studying nanostructured materials

The design and performance of an x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)–scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) surface analysis system for studying nanostructured materials are described. The analysis system features electron spectroscopy methods (XPS and Auger electron spectroscopy) in addition to a variable temperature STM. With the analytical methods of the system, surface chemical analysis as well as surface morphology down to atomic resolution can be obtained. The system also provides facilities for sample cleaning, annealing, gas dosing, depth profiling, and surface modifications by sputtering and evaporation. Controlled gas exposures from ultrahigh vacuum to atmospheric pressures in the adjustable temperature range of 120–1100K can be carried out in different chambers. A fast entry air lock allows the transfer of samples and STM tips into the system without air exposures. The surface analysis system uses a common sample holder in all five chambers which are independently pumped and separated from each...

High power semiconductor disk laser with a semiconductor-dielectric-metal compound mirror

We present optically pumped semiconductor disk lasers with a thin dielectric layer placed between the semiconductor distributed Bragg reflector and the metallization interface. The approach is shown to enhance the reflectivity of the semiconductor mirror while introducing a negligible penalty to the thermal resistance of the device. The design has potential for improving the performance of semiconductor disk lasers by avoiding highly pump-absorbing metal layers and allowing thinner mirror structures. The advantages are expected to be especially prominent for material systems that employ thick thermally insulating semiconductor mirrors.

Effect of dielectric barrier on rectification, injection and transport properties of printed organic diodes

Rectification ratios of 105 were observed in printed organic copper/polytriarylamine (PTAA)/silver diodes with a thin insulating barrier layer at the copper/PTAA interface. To clarify the origin of the high rectification ratio in the diodes, the injection, transport and structure of the diodes with two different copper cathodes were examined using impedance spectroscopy and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The impedance data confirm that the difference in diode performance arises from the copper/PTAA interface. The XPS measurements show that the copper surface in both diode structures is covered by a layer of Cu2O topped by an organic layer. The organic layer is thicker on one of the surfaces, which results in lower reverse currents and higher rectification ratios in the printed diodes. We suggest a model where a dipole at the dual insulating layer induces a shift in the semiconductor energy levels explaining the difference between the diodes with different cathodes.

Ormocomp-Modified Glass Increases Collagen Binding and Promotes the Adherence and Maturation of Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells

In in vitro live-cell imaging, it would be beneficial to grow and assess human embryonic stem cell-derived retinal pigment epithelial (hESC-RPE) cells on thin, transparent, rigid surfaces such as cover glasses. In this study, we assessed how the silanization of glass with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES), 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate (MAPTMS), or polymer-ceramic material Ormocomp affects the surface properties, protein binding, and maturation of hESC-RPE cells. The surface properties were studied by contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and a protein binding assay. The cell adherence and proliferation were evaluated by culturing hESCRPE cells on collagen IV-coated untreated or silanized surfaces for 42 days. The Ormocomp treatment significantly increased the hydrophobicity and roughness of glass surfaces compared to the APTES and MAPTMS treatments. The XPS results indicated that the Ormocomp treatment changes the chemical composition of the glass surface by increasing the carbon content and the number of C-O/═O bonds. The protein-binding test confirmed that the Ormocomp-treated surfaces bound more collagen IV than did APTES- or MAPTMS-treated surfaces. All of the silane treatments increased the number of cells: after 42 days of culture, Ormocomp had 0.38, APTES had 0.16, MAPTMS had 0.19, and untreated glass had only 0.062, all presented as million cells cm(-2). There were no differences in cell numbers compared to smoother to rougher Ormocomp surfaces, suggesting that the surface chemistry and, more specifically, the collagen binding in combination with Ormocomp are beneficial to hESC-RPE cell culture. This study clearly demonstrates that Ormocomp treatment combined with collagen coating significantly increases hESC-RPE cell attachment compared to commonly used silanizing agents APTES and MAPTMS. Ormocomp silanization could thus enable the use of microscopic live cell imaging methods for hESC-RPE cells.

Biofunctional hybrid materials: bimolecular organosilane monolayers on FeCr alloys

Hybrid organic-inorganic interfaces are the key to functionalization of stainless steel (SS). We present a solution-based deposition method for fabricating uniform bimolecular organosilane monolayers on SS and show that their properties and functionalities can be further developed through site-specific biotinylation. We correlate molecular properties of the interface with its reactivity via surface sensitive synchrotron radiation mediated high-resolution photoelectron spectroscopy (HR-PES) and chemical derivatization (CD), and we demonstrate specific bonding of streptavidin proteins to the hybrid interface. The method facilitates efficient growth of uniform bimolecular organosilane monolayers on SS under ambient conditions without the need to prime the SS surface with vacuum-deposited inorganic buffer layers. The obtained insights into molecular bonding, orientation, and behaviour of surface-confined organofunctional silanes on SS enable a new generic approach to functionalization of SS surfaces with versatile nanomolecular organosilane layers.

Improved antifouling properties and selective biofunctionalization of stainless steel by employing heterobifunctional silane-polyethylene glycol overlayers and avidin-biotin technology

A straightforward solution-based method to modify the biofunctionality of stainless steel (SS) using heterobifunctional silane-polyethylene glycol (silane-PEG) overlayers is reported. Reduced nonspecific biofouling of both proteins and bacteria onto SS and further selective biofunctionalization of the modified surface were achieved. According to photoelectron spectroscopy analyses, the silane-PEGs formed less than 10 Å thick overlayers with close to 90% surface coverage and reproducible chemical compositions. Consequently, the surfaces also became more hydrophilic, and the observed non-specific biofouling of proteins was reduced by approximately 70%. In addition, the attachment of E. coli was reduced by more than 65%. Moreover, the potential of the overlayer to be further modified was demonstrated by successfully coupling biotinylated alkaline phosphatase (bAP) to a silane-PEG-biotin overlayer via avidin-biotin bridges. The activity of the immobilized enzyme was shown to be well preserved without compromising the achieved antifouling properties. Overall, the simple solution-based approach enables the tailoring of SS to enhance its activity for biomedical and biotechnological applications.

Color Bricks: Building Highly Organized and Strongly Absorbing Multicomponent Arrays of Terpyridyl Perylenes on Metal Oxide Surfaces

Terpyridine-substituted perylenes containing cyclic anhydrides in the peri position were synthesized. The anhydride group served as an anchor for assembly of the terpyridyl-crowned chromophores as monomolecular layers on metal oxide surfaces. Further coordination with Zn(2+) ions allowed for layer-by-layer formation of supramolecular assemblies of perylene imides on the solid substrates. With properly selected anchor and linker molecules it was possible to build high quality structures of greater than ten successive layers by a simple and straightforward procedure. The prepared films were stable and had a broad spectral coverage and high absorbance. To demonstrate their potential use, the synthesized dyes were employed in solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells, and electron injection from the perylene antennas to titanium dioxide was observed.

Thermal Management in Long-Wavelength Flip-Chip Semiconductor Disk Lasers

We address the thermal management of flip-chip semiconductor disk lasers (SDLs) emitting at wavelengths 1.3-1.6 μm. The emphasis of the study is on fabricating thin SDL structures with high thermal conductance. An essential part of this task is to use GaAs-based materials in the distributed Bragg reflector (DBR), because they can provide a combination of high thermal conductivity and high refractive index contrast. Furthermore, the reflectivity of the GaAs-based DBR should preferably be enhanced using a thin dielectric layer and a highly reflecting metal layer. Such a configuration enables very thin mirror structures with a reduced number of DBR layer pairs without compromising the reflectivity. The concept is demonstrated experimentally with a 1.32-μm flip-chip SDL, where the GaAs-based DBR is finished with a thin Al2O3 layer and a highly reflective Al layer. In addition, the design principles, thermal management, and the development issues related to semiconductor-dielectric-metal mirrors in 1.3-1.6-μm flip-chip SDLs are discussed.