Kirsten Corazzini

Nurse assistant mental models, sensemaking, care actions, and consequences for nursing home residents

In a nursing home case study using observation and interview data, the authors described two mental models that guided certified nurse assistants (CNAs) in resident care. The Golden Rule guided CNAs to respond to residents as they would want someone to do for them. Mother wit guided CNAs to treat residents as they would treat their own children. These mental models engendered self-control and affection but also led to actions such as infantilization and misinterpretations about potentially undiagnosed conditions such as depression or pain. Furthermore, the authors found that CNAs were isolated from clinicians; little resident information was exchanged. They suggest ways to alter CNA mental models to give them a better basis for action and strategies for connecting CNAs and clinical professionals to improve information flow about residents. Study results highlight a critical need for registered nurses (RNs) to be involved in frontline care.

Barriers to and Facilitators of Clinical Practice Guideline Use in Nursing Homes

OBJECTIVES: To identify barriers to and facilitators of the diffusion of clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) and clinical protocols in nursing homes (NHs).

Patterns of Medical and Nursing Staff Communication in Nursing Homes: Implications and Insights From Complexity Science

Complexity science teaches that relationships among health care providers are key to our understanding of how quality care emerges. The authors sought to compare the effects of differing patterns of medicine-nursing communication on the quality of information flow, cognitive diversity, self-organization, and innovation in nursing homes. Two facilities participated in 6-month case studies using field observations, shadowing, and depth interviews. In one facility, the dominant pattern of communication was a vertical “chain of command” between care providers, characterized by thin connections and limited information exchange. This pattern limited cognitive diversity and innovation in clinical problem solving. The second facility used an open communication pattern between medical and frontline staff. The authors saw higher levels of information flow, cognitive diversity, innovation, and self-organization, although tempered by staff turnover. The patterns of communication between care providers in nursing facilities have an important impact on their ability to provide quality, innovative care.

The Power of Relationship for High Quality Long Term Care

In an effort to ensure quality, nursing homes are among the most highly regulated and rule-driven health care organizations. With such attention to quality, why do industry assessments1 continue to report poor quality? Traditional models for organizing care are derived from longstanding Newtonian beliefs about the world and have led to a reliance on regulation and rules as a primary means of control.2 Complexity science, however, offers a new way to understand organizational dynamics3 and thus provides insights about why nursing homes may struggle to provide high quality care and suggests new targets for improvement. In particular, complexity science reveals that the capacity of a human system to change and improve is shaped by the quality of relationships among its members.4 Consider the following scenario. A certified nurse assistant (Katie CNA) discusses her assignment with the nurse. Katie CNA learns that she should first get Mrs. Jones up because this resident must be upright to eat due to choking risk; second bathe and dress Mrs. Smith who is incontinent and at risk for decubitus; and last care for Mrs. Lee because she is not incontinent and doesn’t mind sleeping later. Before beginning her assignment, however, Katie CNA hears from Mary CNA that Mrs. Lee’s daughter is on her way into the building. The nurses and CNAs all know that this daughter complains and is demanding when she finds her mother in bed past 7:30 am; these complaints have been discussed in recent unit meetings. Using this new information, Katie CNA adjusts her plans and takes care of Mrs. Lee first instead of following the nurse’s instructions. Remembering what she learned from the nurse, however, Katie CNA asks Mary CNA to get Mrs. Jones and Mrs. Smith out of bed right away. Mary CNA agrees but only after she secures Katie CNA’s promise to help with her heavy care residents later in the day. Meanwhile the nurse notices the daughter’s arrival, observes the adjustments made by Katie CNA and delays the daughter at the nurse’s station to allow Katie CNA time to prepare Mrs. Lee. This scenario describes a process of self-organization.5 Each individual began with a set of plans for her work. However, each quickly adjusted her actions based on new information that came through interaction with each other and observation of events. The outcome was good and appropriate care for those involved. Self-organization is a property of all social systems—referred to in complexity science as complex adaptive systems.3 Self-organization occurs when people are free to interact, exchange information, and adjust behavior to meet the immediate demands of the environment.5 In this scenario, three critical system parameters6 for effective self-organization were apparent in this small complex adaptive system. These system parameters, which are imbedded in the relationships among the members of the system, are: Appropriate information flow. Katie CNA received a clear assignment from the nurse and was open to additional new information from Mary CNA that made her aware of the need to adjust her plans. In addition, a unit meeting provided information to all staff members and allowed for discussion of the daughter’s history of complaints. Good connections among its members. Mary CNA had open communication with Katie CNA such that Katie trusted the information received. A unit meeting about Mrs. Lee’s daughter and her complaints is more evidence of good connection. In addition, the nurse was connected to the care setting such that she observed emerging events and thus was able to adjust her own behavior in response. Finally, Mary CNA trusted that Katie CNA would reciprocate and assist Mary with the heavy care residents. This trust was another sign of good connections among staff. There was sufficient cognitive diversity. Cognitive diversity refers the variety of people in a system in terms of characteristics such as roles or positions, education levels and background, or cultural orientations. Cognitive diversity means that the system will have more “new” information available to it. For example, people holding similar education, roles, and positions, are not as likely to learn something new from each other as would people who hold different education, roles and positions. In this scenario, the nurse and CNA, being cognitively diverse, interacted in a way that ensured a better understanding of events. Specifically, the nurse, using clinical knowledge, discussed information with Katie CNA in such a way that Katie understood that the care instructions were not meaningless rules to be followed. Because she learned the clinical basis for the care assignment, Katie CNA did not delay the care of Mrs. Jones and Smith when other demands arose; instead, she asked Mary CNA to substitute for her. Even this simplistic scenario suggests that a fairly complex set of behaviors were required for effective care. One would need a fairly long list of rules to specify the behaviors necessary to achieve this outcome, which occurred spontaneously and relatively effortlessly through self-organization. Such self-organization was possible only because of the nature of the relationships among the people on this unit. Currently, the authors are conducting a series of case studies in nursing homes in part to examine relationship patterns necessary for self-organization. To date, we have completed three, six-month case studies and found that in general, the relationship patterns in these nursing homes do not create a level of interaction needed to support truly effective self-organization. Some dominant patterns appeared across these three cases that are likely to exist in many other nursing homes as well. These dominant patterns, described below, suggest a restriction in information flow, poor connections among staff, and lack of interaction among people with cognitive diversity. Thus, the system parameters described above were restricted rather than enhanced. In these nursing homes, RNs were in supervisory or administrative roles and interacted with other nursing staff mainly over staffing problems and staff conflict issues. RNs engaged in interdisciplinary care planning but had minimal interaction with front line, LPN and CNA, staff. Sometimes RNs asked LPNs and CNAs for information, but little information was returned to them. LPNs were tied to medication and treatment carts, covering up to 30 or more residents. Thus, they interacted little with anyone else in their rush to medicate and treat residents on time. CNAs mainly interacted with other CNAs. If teamwork existed, it was in small cliques with conflict and lack of cooperation between cliques. CNAs were rewarded for completing individual assignments not for teamwork. There was heavy reliance on rules and rule enforcement. This meant that managers frequently interacted with staff to correct them on what they were doing wrong. In one example, a manager was observed correcting a CNA for placing a shampoo bottle in a laundry basket but the manager never knew, and thus did not acknowledge, that the CNA used her own money to buy the shampoo for a resident who had none. Not surprisingly, staff members in these nursing homes felt unappreciated. In sum, little attention was paid to the nature and quality of staff relationships. Something better is possible however! By recognizing that self-organization is a naturally occurring characteristic of all work units, managers have some new tools for facilitating a higher quality of care. Key to this capacity is fostering relationship patterns that appropriately alter the system parameters of information flow, connection, and cognitive diversity. Prior research studies have demonstrated a link between better resident outcomes, lower staff turnover and specific management practices that facilitate the system parameters. Some evidence-based management practices are: Reduce reliance on rules and on rule enforcement.4 Facilitate open communication where staff say what they believe without fear.4 In combination with communication openness, create a climate of clear expectations, appropriate rewards and attention to staff concerns.7 Facilitate participation in decision making (PDM) by nurses.4, 8 Facilitate CNA PDM along with high interaction between RNs and CNAs.9 Facilitate leadership behaviors that are relationship-oriented.4 Encourage staff not to wait for managers but to take initiative to raise issues and take advantage of chance encounters with managers to problem solve.10 Use every means for connecting staff, including formal and informal meetings, planned and unplanned encounters in the hallways.10 Foster frequent conversations among RNs, LPNs, and CNAs.11 Understanding that relationships are truly the basis for high quality care, we need to quickly learn to do things differently in long-term care. Over-reliance on rules is not working. This article suggests some effective management practices that bring people together, improve information flow, and increase cognitive diversity. Importantly good teamwork must be accompanied by good information flow between teams and levels in the organization. Let’s talk more not less.

Connection, Regulation, and Care Plan Innovation: A Case Study of Four Nursing Homes

We describe how connections among nursing home staff impact the care planning process using a complexity science framework. We completed six-month case studies of four nursing homes. Field observations (n = 274), shadowing encounters (n = 69), and in-depth interviews (n = 122) of 390 staff at all levels were conducted. Qualitative analysis produced a conceptual/thematic description and complexity science concepts were used to produce conceptual insights. We observed that greater levels of staff connection were associated with higher care plan specificity and innovation. Connection of the frontline nursing staff was crucial for (1) implementation of the formal care plan and (2) spontaneous informal care planning responsive to changing resident needs. Although regulations could theoretically improve cognitive diversity and information flow in care planning, we observed instances of regulatory oversight resulting in less specific care plans and abandonment of an effective care planning process. Interventions which improve staff connectedness may improve resident outcomes.

CONNECT for quality: protocol of a cluster randomized controlled trial to improve fall prevention in nursing homes

BackgroundQuality improvement (QI) programs focused on mastery of content by individual staff members are the current standard to improve resident outcomes in nursing homes. However, complexity science suggests that learning is a social process that occurs within the context of relationships and interactions among individuals. Thus, QI programs will not result in optimal changes in staff behavior unless the context for social learning is present. Accordingly, we developed CONNECT, an intervention to foster systematic use of management practices, which we propose will enhance effectiveness of a nursing home Falls QI program by strengthening the staff-to-staff interactions necessary for clinical problem-solving about complex problems such as falls. The study aims are to compare the impact of the CONNECT intervention, plus a falls reduction QI intervention (CONNECT + FALLS), to the falls reduction QI intervention alone (FALLS), on fall-related process measures, fall rates, and staff interaction measures.Methods/designSixteen nursing homes will be randomized to one of two study arms, CONNECT + FALLS or FALLS alone. Subjects (staff and residents) are clustered within nursing homes because the intervention addresses social processes and thus must be delivered within the social context, rather than to individuals. Nursing homes randomized to CONNECT + FALLS will receive three months of CONNECT first, followed by three months of FALLS. Nursing homes randomized to FALLS alone receive three months of FALLs QI and are offered CONNECT after data collection is completed. Complexity science measures, which reflect staff perceptions of communication, safety climate, and care quality, will be collected from staff at baseline, three months after, and six months after baseline to evaluate immediate and sustained impacts. FALLS measures including quality indicators (process measures) and fall rates will be collected for the six months prior to baseline and the six months after the end of the intervention. Analysis will use a three-level mixed model.DiscussionBy focusing on improving local interactions, CONNECT is expected to maximize staffs ability to implement content learned in a falls QI program and integrate it into knowledge and action. Our previous pilot work shows that CONNECT is feasible, acceptable and appropriate.Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov: NCT00636675

Implementing Culture Change in Nursing Homes: An Adaptive Leadership Framework

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY To describe key adaptive challenges and leadership behaviors to implement culture change for person-directed care. DESIGN AND METHODS The study design was a qualitative, observational study of nursing home staff perceptions of the implementation of culture change in each of 3 nursing homes. We conducted 7 focus groups of licensed and unlicensed nursing staff, medical care providers, and administrators. Questions explored perceptions of facilitators and barriers to culture change. Using a template organizing style of analysis with immersion/crystallization, themes of barriers and facilitators were coded for adaptive challenges and leadership. RESULTS Six key themes emerged, including relationships, standards and expectations, motivation and vision, workload, respect of personhood, and physical environment. Within each theme, participants identified barriers that were adaptive challenges and facilitators that were examples of adaptive leadership. Commonly identified challenges were how to provide person-directed care in the context of extant rules or policies or how to develop staff motivated to provide person-directed care. IMPLICATIONS Implementing culture change requires the recognition of adaptive challenges for which there are no technical solutions, but which require reframing of norms and expectations, and the development of novel and flexible solutions. Managers and administrators seeking to implement person-directed care will need to consider the role of adaptive leadership to address these adaptive challenges.

CONNECT for better fall prevention in nursing homes: Results from a pilot intervention study

To determine whether an intervention that improves nursing home (NH) staff connections, communication, and problem solving (CONNECT) would improve implementation of a falls reduction education program (FALLS).

Regulation and Mindful Resident Care in Nursing Homes

Regulatory oversight is intended to improve the health outcomes of nursing home residents, yet evidence suggests that regulations can inhibit mindful staff behaviors that are associated with effective care. We explored the influence of regulations on mindful staff behavior as it relates to resident health outcomes, and offer a theoretical explanation of why regulations sometimes enhance mindfulness and other times inhibit it. We analyzed data from an in-depth, multiple-case study including field notes, interviews, and documents collected in eight nursing homes. We completed a conceptual/thematic description using the concept of mindfulness to reframe the observations. Shared facility mission strongly impacted staff perceptions of the purpose and utility of regulations. In facilities with a resident-centered culture, regulations increased mindful behavior, whereas in facilities with a cost-focused culture, regulations reduced mindful care practices. When managers emphasized the punitive aspects of regulation we observed a decrease in mindful practices in all facilities.

Local interaction strategies and capacity for better care in nursing homes: a multiple case study.

BackgroundTo describe relationship patterns and management practices in nursing homes (NHs) that facilitate or pose barriers to better outcomes for residents and staff.MethodsWe conducted comparative, multiple-case studies in selected NHs (N = 4). Data were collected over six months from managers and staff (N = 406), using direct observations, interviews, and document reviews. Manifest content analysis was used to identify and explore patterns within and between cases.ResultsParticipants described interaction strategies that they explained could either degrade or enhance their capacity to achieve better outcomes for residents; people in all job categories used these ‘local interaction strategies’. We categorized these two sets of local interaction strategies as the ‘common pattern’ and the ‘positive pattern’ and summarize the results in two models of local interaction.ConclusionsThe findings suggest the hypothesis that when staff members in NHs use the set of positive local interaction strategies, they promote inter-connections, information exchange, and diversity of cognitive schema in problem solving that, in turn, create the capacity for delivering better resident care. We propose that these positive local interaction strategies are a critical driver of care quality in NHs. Our hypothesis implies that, while staffing levels and skill mix are important factors for care quality, improvement would be difficult to achieve if staff members are not engaged with each other in these ways.