Kirsten van den Bosch

Cognition from life: the two modes of cognition that underlie moral behavior

We argue that the capacity to live life to the benefit of self and others originates in the defining properties of life. These lead to two modes of cognition; the coping mode that is preoccupied with the satisfaction of pressing needs and the co-creation mode that aims at the realization of a world where pressing needs occur less frequently. We have used the Rule of Conservative Changes – stating that new functions can only scaffold on evolutionary older, yet highly stable functions – to predict that the interplay of these two modes define a number of core functions in psychology associated with moral behavior. We explore this prediction with five examples reflecting different theoretical approaches to human cognition and action selection. We conclude the paper with the observation that science is currently dominated by the coping mode and that the benefits of the co-creation mode may be necessary to generate realistic prospects for a modern synthesis in the sciences of the mind.

Learning autonomy in two or three steps: linking open-ended development, authority, and agency to motivation

In this paper we connect open-ended development, authority, agency, and motivation through (1) an analysis of the demands of existing in a complex world and (2) environmental appraisal in terms of affordance content and the complexity to select appropriate behavior. We do this by identifying a coherent core from a wide range of contributing fields. Open-ended development is a structured three-step process in which the agent first learns to master the body and then aims to make the mind into a reliable tool. Preconditioned on success in step two, step three aims to effectively co-create an optimal living environment. We argue that these steps correspond to right-left-right hemispheric dominance, where the left hemisphere specializes in control and the right hemisphere in exploration. Control (e.g., problem solving) requires a closed and stable world that must be maintained by external authorities or, in step three, by the right hemisphere acting as internal authority. The three-step progression therefore corresponds to increasing autonomy and agency. Depending on how we appraise the environment, we formulate four qualitatively different motivational states: submission, control, exploration, and consolidation. Each of these four motivational states has associated reward signals of which the last three—successful control, discovery of novelty, and establishing new relations—form an open-ended development loop that, the more it is executed, helps the agent to become progressively more agentic and more able to co-create a pleasant-to-live-in world. We conclude that for autonomy to arise, the agent must exist in a (broad) transition region between order and disorder in which both danger and opportunity (and with that open-ended development and motivation) are defined. We conclude that a research agenda for artificial cognitive system research should include open-ended development through intrinsic motivations and ascribing more prominence to right hemispheric strengths.

A comparison of natural and non-natural soundscapes on people with severe of profound intellectual and multiple disabilities

ABSTRACT Background Previous research indicates that there is a relationship between the auditory environment and the core affects (or mood) of people with severe or profound intellectual disability. We conducted a systematic study to further explore this relationship. Method Thirteen participants with severe or profound intellectual disability and challenging behaviour were presented with 5 different soundscapes (Beach, Forest, Urban, Music, and Silence) in a dedicated room. Direct support professionals made core affect observations before and after each trial. Results A trend was visible in the core affect observations, with a prominent and consistent increase in the frequency of observations of a Relaxed core affect across conditions. However, a greater increase in the frequency of observations of a Relaxed core affect and a greater decrease in the frequency of observations of an Interested core affect were associated with the natural conditions (Forest and Beach) rather than the non-natural conditions (Urban and Music). Conclusion This pilot study could serve an important role in raising awareness and stimulating further research regarding the auditory environments of people with severe or profound intellectual disability.

Examining relationships between staff attributions of soundscapes and core affect in people with severe or profound intellectual and visual disabilities

ABSTRACT Background People with profound intellectual disability experience a high prevalence of visual disability, making them more dependent on sound. However, research addressing the influence of the auditory environment is scarce. Method Observations of the auditory environments (soundscapes) and moods of people with profound intellectual and visual disabilities, in terms of core affect, were conducted in residential facilities by direct support personnel. Appraisals of soundscape and core affect dimensions were combined and analysed by means of multilevel linear regression. Results Findings endorse a positive relationship between the observed pleasantness and eventfulness of soundscapes and core affect of people with profound intellectual and visual disabilities. Conclusion Based on the results of this study we suggest a relationship between soundscapes and moods of people with profound intellectual and visual disabilities, as judged by staff members engaged in their environments. These findings give reason to believe that improved soundscapes could ameliorate the moods of the residents.

The Evolution of Soundscape Appraisal through Enactive Cognition

We propose a framework based on evolutionary principles and the theory of enactive cognition (“being by doing”), that addresses the foundation of key results and central questions of soundscape research. We hypothesize that the two main descriptors (measures of how people perceive the acoustic environment) of soundscape appraisal (‘pleasantness’ and ‘eventfulness’), reflect evolutionarily old motivational and affective systems that promote survival through preferences for certain environments and avoidance of others. Survival is aimed at ending or avoiding existential threats and protecting viability in a deficient environment. On the other hand, flourishing occurs whenever survival is not an immediate concern and aims to improve the agent’s viability and by co-creating ever better conditions for existence. As such, survival is experienced as unpleasant, and deals with immediate problems to be ended or avoided, while flourishing is enjoyable, and therefore to be aimed for and maintained. Therefore, the simplest, safety-relevant meaning attributable to soundscapes (audible safety) should be key to understanding soundscape appraisal. To strengthen this, we show that the auditory nervous system is intimately connected to the parts of our brains associated with arousal and emotions. Furthermore, our theory demonstrates that ‘complexity’ and ‘affordance content’ of the perceived environment are important underlying soundscape indicators (measures used to predict the value of a soundscape descriptor). Consideration of these indicators allows the same soundscape to be viewed from a second perspective; one driven more by meaning attribution characteristics than merely emotional appraisal. The synthesis of both perspectives of the same person–environment interaction thus consolidates the affective, informational, and even the activity related perspectives on soundscape appraisal. Furthermore, we hypothesize that our current habitats are not well matched to our, evolutionarily old, auditory warning systems, and that we consequently have difficulty establishing audible safety. This leads to more negative and aroused moods and emotions, with stress-related symptoms as a result.