Kirsty Brittain

Investigating the psychosocial determinants of child health in Africa: the Drakenstein Child Health Study

BACKGROUND Early life psychobiological and psychosocial factors play a key role in influencing child health outcomes. Longitudinal studies may help elucidate the relevant risk and resilience profiles, and the underlying mechanisms that impact on child health, but there is a paucity of birth cohort data from low and middle-income countries (LMIC). We describe the rationale for and present baseline findings from the psychosocial component of the Drakenstein Child Health Study (DCHS). METHODS We review the psychosocial measures used in the DCHS, a multidisciplinary birth cohort study in a peri-urban area in South Africa, and provide initial data on psychological distress, depression, substance use, and exposure to traumatic stressors and intimate partner violence (IPV). These and other measures will be assessed longitudinally in mothers in order to investigate associations with child neurodevelopmental and health outcomes. RESULTS Baseline psychosocial data is presented for mothers (n=634) and fathers (n=75) who have completed antenatal assessments to date. The sample of pregnant mothers is characterized by multiple psychosocial risk factors, including a high prevalence of psychological distress and depression, high levels of substance use, and high exposure to traumatic stressors and IPV. DISCUSSION These data are consistent with prior South African studies which have documented a high prevalence of a multitude of risk factors during pregnancy. Further longitudinal assessment of mothers and children may clarify the underlying psychobiological and psychosocial mechanisms which impact on child health, and so inform clinical and public health interventions appropriate to the South African and other LMIC contexts.

Risk Factors for Antenatal Depression and Associations with Infant Birth Outcomes: Results From a South African Birth Cohort Study

BACKGROUND Maternal antenatal depression may be particularly prevalent in low- and middle-income countries, but there is a paucity of data on its effect on birth outcomes in such settings. We investigated risk factors for antenatal depression and the associations between depression and infant birth outcomes in the Drakenstein Child Health Study (DCHS), a birth cohort study in the Western Cape, South Africa. METHODS The prevalence of depression in pregnant women enrolled in the DCHS from primary care antenatal clinics was measured using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II). Predictors of antenatal depression were investigated using logistic regression, and the associations between depression and infant birth outcomes were examined in linear regression models. RESULTS Among 726 pregnant women (median age: 26 years), 156 (21%) had BDI-II scores suggesting depression. Independent predictors of depression included single marital status, low socioeconomic status (SES), recent stressful life events, unplanned pregnancy, childhood trauma, and past-year intimate partner violence. No association was observed between antenatal depression and preterm birth. Strong associations were observed between antenatal depression and decreased infant weight-for-age (WAZ) and head circumference-for-age (HCAZ) z-scores at birth. In multivariable analysis, the association between depression and decreased HCAZ remained significant, when adjusted for clinic, SES, and recent stressful life events. CONCLUSIONS Antenatal depression and associated risk factors are highly prevalent in this setting and are associated with adverse fetal growth. Maternal mental health may be an important predictor of infant growth in utero.

Antenatal health promotion via short message service at a Midwife Obstetrics Unit in South Africa: a mixed methods study

BackgroundAdequate antenatal care is important to both the health of a pregnant woman and her unborn baby. Given South Africa’s high rate of cellphone penetration, mobile health interventions have been touted as a potentially powerful means to disseminate health information. This study aimed to increase antenatal health knowledge and awareness by disseminating text messages about clinic procedures at antenatal visits, and how to be healthy during pregnancy.MethodsParticipants recruited were pregnant women attending a primary health care facility in Cape Town. A controlled clinical trial was carried out where the intervention group (n = 102) received text messages staggered according to the week of pregnancy at the time of recruitment. The control group (n = 104) received no text messages. These text messages contained antenatal health information, and were delivered in English, Xhosa or Afrikaans, according to the preference of each participant. A baseline knowledge questionnaire with nine questions was administered prior to the intervention. The same questionnaire was used with added health-related behaviour questions for the intervention group at exit. A modified intention-to-treat analysis was done. To compare the control and intervention group’s knowledge, Fisher’s exact tests and two-sample t-tests tests were carried out for binary and continuous outcomes, respectively. A focus group of seven participants from the intervention group was then conducted to gain more insight into how the text messages were perceived.ResultsThere was substantial loss to follow-up during the study with only 57% of the participants retained at exit. No statistically significant difference was detected between the control and intervention group in any of the nine knowledge questions at exit (all p > 0.05). Responses from the focus group indicated that the text messages acted as a welcome reminder and a source of positive motivation, and were perceived as extended care from the health care provider.ConclusionsWhile the intervention failed to improve antenatal health knowledge, evidence from self-reported behaviour and the focus group suggests that text messages have the potential to motivate change in health-seeking behaviour. One should be mindful of loss to follow-up when rolling out mobile health interventions in developing country settings.Trial registrationPan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR201406000841188. Registered 3 June 2014.

Improving men's participation in preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV as a maternal, neonatal, and child health priority in South Africa.

Wessel van den Berg and colleagues outline how increasing male partner involvement in efforts to reduce mother-to-child HIV transmission in South Africa may improve maternal and infant outcomes.

Antenatal and early life tobacco smoke exposure in an African birth cohort study.

BACKGROUND Exposure to tobacco smoke in African infants has not been well studied, despite the high burden of childhood respiratory disease in these communities. OBJECTIVE To investigate the prevalence of antenatal and early life tobacco smoke exposure and associations with infant birth outcomes in an African birth cohort, the Drakenstein Child Health Study. METHODS Self-report questionnaires assessing maternal and household smoking were administered. Maternal and infant urine cotinine testing was conducted antenatally, at birth and at 6-10 weeks of life to measure tobacco smoke exposure. Multivariate regression models explored the associations between exposure to smoke and infant birth outcomes. RESULTS Of 789 pregnant women included, 250 (32%) were active smokers on cotinine testing. At birth and at 6-10 weeks of life, respectively 135/241 (56%) and 154/291 (53%) infants had urine cotinine levels indicating tobacco smoke exposure. Household smoking was prevalent and was associated with positive infant cotinine test results. Antenatal maternal smoking was associated with decreased infant birthweight-for-age Z-score (0.3, 95%CI 0.1-0.5). CONCLUSION Antenatal and early life tobacco smoke exposure is highly prevalent in this community, and may impact on birth outcomes and subsequent child health. Smoking cessation interventions are urgently needed to reduce tobacco smoke exposure in African communities.

Intimate partner violence experienced by HIV-infected pregnant women in South Africa: a cross-sectional study

Objectives Intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy may be common in settings where HIV is prevalent but there are few data on IPV in populations of HIV-infected pregnant women in Southern Africa. We examined the prevalence and correlates of IPV among HIV-infected pregnant women. Setting A primary care antenatal clinic in Cape Town, South Africa. Participants 623 consecutive HIV-infected pregnant women initiating lifelong antiretroviral therapy. Measures IPV, depression, substance use and psychological distress were assessed using the 13-item WHO Violence Against Women questionnaire, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Alcohol and Drug Use Disorders Identification Tests (AUDIT/DUDIT) and the Kessler 10 (K-10) scale, respectively. Results The median age in the sample was 28 years, 97% of women reported being in a relationship, and 70% of women reported not discussing and/or agreeing on pregnancy intentions before conception. 21% of women (n=132) reported experiencing ≥1 act of IPV in the past 12 months, including emotional (15%), physical (15%) and sexual violence (2%). Of those reporting any IPV (n=132), 48% reported experiencing 2 or more types. Emotional and physical violence was most prevalent among women aged 18–24 years, while sexual violence was most commonly reported among women aged 25–29 years. Reported IPV was less likely among married women, and women who experienced IPV were more likely to score above threshold for substance use, depression and psychological distress. In addition, women who reported not discussing and/or not agreeing on pregnancy intentions with their partner prior to conception were significantly more likely to experience violence. Conclusions HIV-infected pregnant women in the study reported experiencing multiple forms of IPV. While the impact of IPV on maternal and child health outcomes in the context of HIV infection requires further research attention, IPV screening and support services should be considered within the package of routine care for HIV-infected pregnant women. Trial registration number NCT01933477.

Hypertension Health Promotion via Text Messaging at a Community Health Center in South Africa: A Mixed Methods Study

Background The use of mobile phones to deliver health care (mHealth) is increasing in popularity due to the high prevalence of mobile phone penetration. This is seen in developing countries, where mHealth may be particularly useful in overcoming traditional access barriers. Non-communicable diseases may be particularly amenable to mHealth interventions, and hypertension is one with an escalating burden in the developing world. Objective The objective of this study was to test whether the dissemination of health information via a short message service (SMS) led to improvements in health knowledge and self-reported health-related behaviors. Methods A mixed methods study was carried out among a cohort of 223 hypertension clinic patients, in a resource-poor setting in Cape Town, South Africa, in 2012. Hypertensive outpatients were recruited at the clinic and administered a baseline questionnaire to establish existing knowledge of hypertension. Participants were then randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. The intervention group received 90 SMSes over a period of 17 weeks. Thereafter, the baseline questionnaire was readministered to both groups to gauge if any improvements in health knowledge had occurred. Those who received SMSes were asked additional questions about health-related behavior changes. A focus group was then conducted to obtain in-depth feedback about participants’ experience with, and response to, the SMS campaign. Results No statistically significant changes in overall health knowledge were observed between the control and intervention groups. The intervention group had positive increases in self-reported behavior changes. These were reaffirmed by the focus groups, which also revealed a strong preference for the SMS campaign and the belief that the SMSes acted as a reminder to change, as opposed to providing new information. Conclusions Although the content of the SMSes was not new, and did not improve health knowledge, SMSes were effective in motivating positive self-reported behavior change among hypertensive patients. Trial Registration Pan African Clinical Trials Registry Number: PACTR201412000968462. Registered 18 December 2014 (Archived by WebCite at http://www.webcitation.org/6fhtyLRcO).

Psychological Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Risk Factors and Associations with Birth Outcomes in the Drakenstein Child Health Study

Background Prenatal and peripartum trauma may be associated with poor maternal–fetal outcomes. However, relatively few data on these associations exist from low-middle income countries, and populations in transition. Objective We investigated the prevalence and risk factors for maternal trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and their association with adverse birth outcomes in the Drakenstein Child Health Study, a South African birth cohort study. Methods Pregnant women were recruited from two clinics in a peri-urban community outside Cape Town. Trauma exposure and PTSD were assessed using diagnostic interviews; validated self-report questionnaires measured other psychosocial characteristics. Gestational age at delivery was calculated and birth outcomes were assessed by trained staff. Multiple logistic regression explored risk factors for trauma and PTSD; associations with birth outcomes were investigated using linear regression. Potential confounders included study site, socioeconomic status (SES), and depression. Results A total of 544 mother–infant dyads were included. Lifetime trauma was reported in approximately two-thirds of mothers, with about a third exposed to past-year intimate partner violence (IPV). The prevalence of current/lifetime PTSD was 19%. In multiple logistic regression, recent life stressors were significantly associated with lifetime trauma, when controlling for SES, study site, and recent IPV. Childhood trauma and recent stressors were significantly associated with PTSD, controlling for SES and study site. While no association was observed between maternal PTSD and birth outcomes, maternal trauma was significantly associated with a 0.3 unit reduction (95% CI: 0.1; 0.5) in infant head-circumference-for-age z-scores (HCAZ scores) at birth in crude analysis, which remained significant when adjusted for study site and recent stressors in a multivariate regression model. Conclusions In this exploratory study, maternal trauma and PTSD were found to be highly prevalent, and preliminary evidence suggested that trauma may adversely affect fetal growth, as measured by birth head circumference. However, these findings are limited by a number of methodological weaknesses, and further studies are required to extend findings and delineate causal links and mechanisms of association.

Tenofovir exposure in utero and linear growth in HIV-exposed, uninfected infants

Objective: Tenofovir (TDF) affects bone health and is widely used in pregnancy but data are limited on the effects of TDF exposure in utero. We examined the association between duration of in-utero TDF exposure and linear growth in HIV-exposed, uninfected (HEU) infants. Design: A prospective cohort of pregnant women initiating TDF-containing regimens at primary care services in Cape Town, South Africa, were enrolled and followed with their breastfeeding infants through 12 months postpartum. Methods: Length-for-age z scores (LAZ) were calculated from infant lengths reported at birth and measured at 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 weeks, using Fenton and WHO standards. Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine the association between duration of TDF exposure and LAZ over time. Results: In 464 singleton mother–infant pairs (median CD4+ at ART initiation, 346 cells/&mgr;l; viral load (VL), 4.0 log10 copies/ml), the median duration of in-utero TDF exposure was 16.7 weeks (interquartile range, IQR 11.0–22.0) with 31, 44 and 25% of infants exposed to less than 12, 12–22 and more than 22 weeks of TDF, respectively. Overall, 12% of children were stunted (LAZ < −2) at 48 weeks. Duration of exposure was not associated with LAZ: adjusted mean difference for more than 22 vs less than 12 weeks, −0.12 (95% CI −0.47 to 0.23); 12–22 vs less than 12 weeks, −0.06 (95% CI −0.35 to 0.24). Mean LAZ was 0.15 lower per log increase in maternal VL at ART initiation (95% CI −0.29 to −0.0001). Conclusion: These data suggest no association between duration of TDF exposure in utero and early linear growth.

Pregnant women's experiences of male partner involvement in the context of prevention of mother-to-child transmission in Khayelitsha, South Africa

Male partner involvement (MPI) has been identified as a priority intervention in programmes for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, but rates of MPI remain low worldwide. This study used a quantitative survey (n = 170) and two focus group discussions (FGDs) with 16 HIV-positive pregnant women attending a public sector antenatal care service in Khayelitsha, South Africa, to examine the determinants of high levels of involvement and generate a broader understanding of womens experiences of MPI during pregnancy. Among survey participants, 74% had disclosed their status to their partner, and most reported high levels of communication around HIV testing and preventing partner transmission, as well as high levels of MPI. High MPI was significantly more likely among women who were cohabiting with their partner; who had reportedly disclosed their HIV status to their partner; and who reported higher levels of HIV-related communication with their partner. FGD participants discussed a range of ways in which partners can be supportive during pregnancy, not limited to male attendance of antenatal care. MPI appears to be a feasible intervention in this context, and MPI interventions should aim to encourage male partner attendance of antenatal care as well as greater involvement in pregnancy more generally. Interventions that target communication are needed to facilitate HIV-related communication and disclosure within couples. MPI should remain a priority intervention in PMTCT programmes, and increased efforts should be made to promote MPI in PMTCT.