Kishor Atreya

Health costs from short-term exposure to pesticides in Nepal

Household surveys were undertaken every week for seven months in 2005 to understand acute health symptoms and to estimate health costs associated with pesticide exposure in rural Nepal. The cost-of-illness and avertive action approach was used to estimate costs of pesticide use. The probit regressions fit sickness and avertive actions with exposure to pesticides and other factors. Based on data from 291 households, the study finds that the magnitude of exposure to insecticides and fungicides significantly influenced the occurrence of acute symptoms. The predicted probability of falling sick from pesticide-related symptoms is significantly higher among individuals who apply pesticides compared to individuals in the same household who are not directly exposed. Further, the predicted annual cost of illness as a result of pesticide use is estimated to be Nepalese Rupees 144 per individual. This cost is nearly one-third of the total expenditure on health care services, but is small compared to the increase in farm production costs, thus when faced with a choice between the health care costs and increases in farm production costs, the individual opts for pesticides. However, the costs are nearly eight times higher compared to the population who were not directly exposed. This study suggests that there are acute health impacts of pesticide use; however, because of the low level of the health costs, farm workers may underestimate the effects of pesticides on the human being, and thus they may continue to use pesticides without any safety precautions.

Sustainable livelihoods through conservation of wetland resources: a case of economic benefits from Ghodaghodi Lake, western Nepal

We investigated the participation of local ethnic groups in wetland conservation, determined the economic benefits that they received from the wetlands, and assessed socioeconomic factors that affect dependency on wetlands. A total of 217 wetland resource-user households residing around Ghodaghodi Lake, western Nepal were surveyed. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests and ordinary least squares regressions. The wetland resources contributed significantly to the household economy of the local people. Each household extracted lake resources at an annual worth of NPR 4379 (

Health and environmental costs of pesticide use in vegetable farming in Nepal

63 USD), equivalent to 12.4% of the household total gross income. Although the people maintained a positive attitude toward wetland conservation, their participation in conservation efforts was inadequate. Socioeconomic factors such as larger household size, older age of the head of the family, and larger area of agricultural land increased the rate of resource extraction. In contrast, when households were involved with local conservation organizations, resource extraction was reduced. We recommend the following resource conservation and livelihood strategies: implementation of community-based conservation approaches to increase system productivity, adoption of biogas plants, and improved cooking stoves to reduce fuelwood consumption, coupled with conservation awareness programs.

Bacterial contamination of drinking water and the economic burden of illnesses for the Nepalese households

There is a growing concern of pesticide risks to human health, natural environment and ecosystems. Many previous economic valuations have accounted health aspects or environmental components, but rarely combined; thus, overall risk assessment is partially distorted. The study, conducted close to the capital of Nepal, addressed the health effects of pesticides on small-scale farmers and evaluated the monetary risks of pesticide use on human health and environmental resources. We also aim to establish the relationships among valuation methods. The paper adopts cost of illness, defensive expenditure and contingent valuation willingness to pay approach. The study concluded that the methods used for valuing pesticide risks to human and environmental health are theoretically consistent. The exposed individuals are likely to bear significant economic costs of exposures depending on geographical location, pesticide use magnitudes and frequency. Individuals are willing to pay between 53 and 79% more than the existing pesticide price to protect their health and environment. The integrated pest management training is less likely to reduce health costs of pesticide exposure, although it leads to higher investment in safety measures.

Invasive alien plant species dynamics in the Himalayan region under climate change

Abstract A household survey was conducted to determine the number of working days lost and household medical expenditure (ME) due to six water-borne diseases in the Terai region of Nepal. Drinking water sources of each household were analysed for total coliforms (TC). The study found 61% of the household water sources were contaminated with TC at the time of sampling. Number of days lost due to water-borne diseases was 8 days for TC-negative households and 10 days for TC-positive households per year. The average annual household medical expenditure was NR 459 for TC-negative households, and NR 789 for TC-positive households (p = 0.02 at ∝ = 0.05). Regression result showed that the presence of TC in the drinking water sources, number of children in the household and income of the household significantly determined ME.

Tourism and wetland conservation: application of travel cost and willingness to pay an entry fee at Ghodaghodi Lake Complex, Nepal

Climate change will impact the dynamics of invasive alien plant species (IAPS). However, the ability of IAPS under changing climate to invade mountain ecosystems, particularly the Himalayan region, is less known. This study investigates the current and future habitat of five IAPS of the Himalayan region using MaxEnt and two representative concentration pathways (RCPs). Two invasive species, Ageratum conyzoides and Parthenium hysterophorus, will lose overall suitable area by 2070, while Ageratina adenophora, Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara will gain suitable areas and all of them will retain most of the current habitat as stable. The southern Himalayan foothills will mostly conserve species ecological niches, while suitability of all the five species will decrease with increasing elevation. Such invasion dynamics in the Himalayan region could have impacts on numerous ecosystems and their biota, ecosystem services and human well-being. Trans-boundary response strategies suitable to the local context of the region could buffer some of the likely invasion impacts.

Diversity, Uses, and Threats in the Ghodaghodi Lake Complex, a Ramsar Site in Western Lowland Nepal

This study investigated the need and applicability of wetland tourism for resource conservation, using the case of Ghodaghodi Lake Complex, a Ramsar Site in western Nepal. The travel cost method (TCM) was used to determine the recreation potential of the lake complex, while the contingent valuation method (CVM) was used to calculate willingness of visitors to pay an entry fee as a payment vehicle for conservation. The per capita travel cost was found to be NPR 540 (US

Future climate and habitat distribution of Himalayan Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster)

7.71), while the mean willingness to pay an entry fee was NPR 34 (US

Historical evidence of climatic variability and changes, and its effect on high-altitude regions: insights from Rara and Langtang, Nepal

0.48) per visitor per entry. In addition, factors affecting wetland visitation rates and maximum willingness to pay were identified. Policy implications include the establishment of an entry fee system to offset conservation budgetary constraints, government investment in social benefits equating to at least per capita travel cost identified, and public-private partnerships, with community participation in tourism promotion and wetland conservation.

Vulnerability and impacts of climate change on forest and freshwater wetland ecosystems in Nepal: A review

This study documents aquatic and terrestrial/riparian biodiversity in an anthropogenically disturbed Ramsar site, the Ghodaghodi Lake complex, in the Western Nepal surveyed during the summer season (March-April) of 2007. The study site comprises three major interconnected lakes: Ghodaghodi (138 ha), Nakharodi (70 ha), and Bainshwa (10 ha). Five transect lines for aquatic macrophytes and three transect lines and 37 sampling plots were laid to sample terrestrial/riparian plants, birds, and animals. Five sample plots were established for fish and aquatic bird. A total of 45 species of aquatic macrophytes, 54 species of terrestrial/riparian vegetation, 19 fish species, 41 bird species, 17 mammals (endangered and vulnerable), and 5 reptiles (critically endangered, vulnerable, and near threatened) were recorded at the lake complex. Local people have used most of the aquatic and terrestrial plants for different purposes while many of the potential medicinal plant species were still untapped. Persistent anthropogenic threats, like excessive harvesting and poaching, habitat destruction—population pressure, forest fragmentation, siltation, fertilizer and pesticide seepage, water pollution, overgrazing, and unmanaged irrigation system found over the lake complex, endangered the existing biodiversity. The suggested remedial measures are further exploration of medicinal potential, prioritization of in situ biodiversity conservation strategies, and implementation of awareness program at local level against anthropogenic threats.