Kjetil Sager Longva

Health effects after firing small arms comparing leaded and unleaded ammunition

Abstract A number of Norwegian soldiers have reported health problems after live-fire training using the HK416 rifle. The objective of this study was to characterize gaseous and particulate emissions from three different types of ammunition, and record the health effects after exposure to emissions from live-firing. Fifty-five healthy, non-smoking men (mean age 40 years) were recruited and divided randomly into three groups, one for each type of ammunition. All subjects fired the HK416 rifle in a semi-airtight tent for 60 min using leaded ammunition, unleaded ammunition and modified unleaded ammunition. Gaseous and particulate emissions were monitored within the tent. The symptoms experienced by the subjects were recorded immediately after and the day after firing using a standardized questionnaire. The concentrations of particulate matter and copper exceeded their respective occupational exposure limits (eight hours per day, five days a week) by a factor of 3 and 27, respectively. Of the 55 subjects, 54 reported general and respiratory symptoms. The total number of symptoms reported was significantly higher among shooters using unleaded ammunition as compared with the use of leaded and modified unleaded ammunition. Copper was the substance that had the highest concentration relative to its toxicity. Although the general symptoms were found to be consistent with the development of metal fume fever, the respiratory symptoms indicated an irritant effect of the airways different from that seen in metal fume fever. More symptoms were reported when unleaded ammunition was used compared with leaded and modified unleaded ammunition.

Global warming contributions from alternative approaches to waste management in the Norwegian Armed Forces

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions emanating from waste management practices in five Norwegian military camps were assessed. The GHG emission accounting practices examined included fuel provision upstream of a material recovery facility (MRF), operational activities at the MRF, and downstream processes. The latter means recycling of waste compared to primary production using virgin materials, or the incineration of waste with energy recovery compared to heating based on the average energy mix for both EU and Norway. The results show that the operational activities at the MRF cause more GHG emissions than the provision of fuel upstream of the MRF (116 vs. 16–21 tonnes CO2-eq., respectively). Furthermore, the downstream activities provided far greater avoidance of GHG emissions than the load caused by upstream activities and the activities at the MRF. Recycling proves to be beneficial over incineration of waste when compared to the EU energy mix (savings of −257 tonnes CO2-eq.), and the advantage is even larger when compared to the average energy mix for Norway (savings of −779 tonnes CO2-eq.). In conclusion, the results show that sorting of mixed waste at military camp collection sites followed by recycling of the separated fractions at MRF would result in significant avoidance of GHG emissions, compared to the current practice of incineration with energy recovery of the mixed waste.

Sheep show partial avoidance of water contaminated with white phosphorus

Abstract White phosphorus (WP) is a contaminant found in many military training areas. Animals may ingest WP through drinking contaminated water, and knowledge of behaviour towards WP is important for developing risk assessment models. The aim of this study was to investigate if WP contamination affects drinking in sheep. Six sheep were given free choice between clean and contaminated water; quantities consumed were registered for three consecutive days (two 1.5 hour sessions/day). On average sheep drank more clean (473.1 g) than contaminated (210.8 g) water per session. This avoidance implies reduced risk of sheep being poisoned on military ranges. However, the danger of animals consuming suspended particles means the risk may be reduced less than the >50% reduction in drinking might otherwise imply.

Systemic and Airway Inflammation after Exposure to Fumes from Military Small Arms

Sikkeland, Liv Ingunn Bjoner; Borander, Anne Katrine; Voie, Oyvind Albert; Aass, Hans Christian Dalsbotten; Ovstebo, Reidun; Aukrust, Pal; Longva, Kjetil Sager; Alexis, Neil E.; Kongerud, Johny; Ueland, Thor. Systemic and Airway Inflammation After Exposure to Fumes from Military Small Arms. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2018 ;Volum 197.(10) s. 1349-1353

684 Exposure from gun smoke activates several systemic inflammatory pathways

Introduction Norwegian Armed Forces reported episodes of acute respiratory symptoms after exposure to fumes from firing small arms weapon HK416 (Heckler and Koch) using unleaded ammunition. These fumes contain a mixture of gases and solid particles, that may be capable of inducing inflammatory immune responses. The aim of the present study was to find out if exposure to fumes from small arms could induce systemic and airway inflammation, and whether there were any differences between the ammunition types (leaded, and two types of unleaded). Methods Fifty-five healthy men (age 19–62) were recruited and randomised to three groups using HK416 and one of the three types of ammunition. Spirometry and collection of blood and sputum samples were performed 2–4 days before shooting, and 1.5 hour (spirometry), 24 hour (blood and spirometry) and 48 hour (sputum) after shooting under standardised conditions. Exposure was monitored. Results All subjects had a significant increase in median sputum and blood neutrophils (sputum: 46% to 73%, p<0.001; blood: 2.9 × 106/mL to 7.1 × 106/mL, p<0.001). CRP was significantly elevated from 1.3 mg/L to 18.5 mg/L (p<0.001) along with other markers of systemic inflammation (PTX3, YKL-40, SpD, CC16, CXCL16, vWF, MPO, CD25, CD14). CRP and number of neutrophils in blood had a larger increase with unleaded as compared to leaded ammunition. For the whole group, mean FEV1 and FVC decreased 290 mL (p<0.001) and 130 mL (p<0.001), respectively. Discussion All subjects displayed elevated airway and in particular systemic inflammation following the use of small arms. The changes in systemic markers were enhanced acute stress response (CRP, PTX3), immune cell upregulation (sCD25, sCD14) and increased vascular inflammation (MPO, vWF, CXL16, YKL40). Increased airway inflammation was present at 48 hour post exposure and was accompanied by reduced spirometry that appeared <1.5 hour and lasted >24 hour after exposure. These results suggest that soldiers may be at increased risk to inflammation-based disorders when repeatedly using small arms.

Military small arms fire in association with acute decrements in lung function

Objective After introduction of unleaded ammunition, Norwegian Armed Forces received reports of acute respiratory symptoms in soldiers after exposure to fumes from firing the standard weapon, HK416. The aim of the present study was to examine lung function before and after exposure to fumes from HK416 in a double-blinded standardised study design using three different types of ammunition. Methods Fifty-four healthy, non-smoking male volunteers (19–62 years) fired the weapons for 60 min with either leaded, unleaded or ‘modified’ unleaded ammunition. Gaseous and particulate emissions were monitored. Spirometry and exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) were performed within 14 days before (T0), shortly after (T1) and 24 hours after (T2) shooting. Methacholine provocation and diffusing capacity of carbon monoxide (DLCO) were carried out at T0 and T2. Results The mean forced expiratory volume in 1 s on a group level was significantly reduced both at T1 and T2 compared with T0, with means and 95% CI of 226 mL (158 to 294 mL) and 285 mL (218 to 351 mL), respectively. The same significant pattern was seen for DLCO, forced vital capacity and eNO. The methacholine test indicated a slight increase in bronchial hyper-reactivity. However, there were no significant differences between types of ammunition used. Conclusion Exposure to fumes from military weapons might be a respiratory hazard for soldiers who do live-fire training regularly or are in a closed combat environment.

Effect of contamination of pasture with military explosives on grazing behaviour in sheep

Abstract Ungulates grazing in military training areas may be exposed to non-combusted fragments of various explosives, among which 2-methyl-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (TNT) and 1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane (HMX) are two of the most common. This study investigated if sheep react to their pastures being contaminated with TNT or HMX. The experiment was conducted in fenced-in study areas on grass-dominated pasture. The eight sheep studied did not differentiate between clean pasture and contaminated pasture when choosing freely between plots containing TNT, HMX or no contamination. The results indicate that sheep grazing military training areas are unlikely to have behavioural responses reducing time spent grazing sites where TNT or HMX are present as fragments in the field layer.