Klaus P. Schneider

Variational pragmatics: Studying the impact of social factors on language use in interaction

Intercultural pragmatics is usually associated with pragmatic di¤erences between di¤erent languages. This seems to be the default reading of the term. However, this reading tacitly ignores that there is no one-to-one relationship between languages and cultures.1 Speakers who share the same native language do not necessarily share the same culture. For instance, native speakers of English in Ireland and the United States use language in di¤erent ways (e.g., Schneider 1999, 2008). Neither do Americans in the US all use English in the same way (cf., e.g., Barron 2009; Wolfram and Schilling 2006: 93–101). On the other hand, cultures may be shared by speakers with di¤erent native languages. Thus, as language use in interaction is shaped by cultural values, pragmatic similarities may occur across languages, while pragmatic di¤erences may occur across varieties of the same language. Variational pragmatics is a subdiscipline of intercultural pragmatics. Other subdisciplines include contrastive pragmatics, cross-cultural pragmatics, ethnopragmatics, interlanguage pragmatics, and postcolonial pragmatics. Contrastive pragmatics is concerned with inter-lingual di¤erences, i.e., with pragmatic variation between di¤erent languages. Crosscultural pragmatics, on the other hand, compares the ways in which different languages are used in communication. It also deals with native speaker—non-native speaker interaction and with lingua franca communication (cf. Blum-Kulka et al. 1989; House-Edmondson 1986: 282).2 Ethnopragmatics is concerned with explaining speech practices in terms of a culture-internal perspective (e.g., in terms of values) rather than in terms of presumed pragmatic universals (cf. Goddard 2006). Interlanguage pragmatics focuses on the specific nature of language use conventions in learner language, e.g., in the English as a foreign language spoken by native speakers of German, and also on the acquisition of these conventions by learners (cf. Kasper 1998; Kasper and Rose 1999; Barron 2003: 26–28). The use of second (as opposed to foreign) languages in interaction is studied in postcolonial pragmatics. In other words, this

Diminutives in English

That English has no diminutives is a common myth. The present study shows, however, that English does possess diminutives, and not only analytic but also synthetic diminutive markers. Analytic markers include, first and foremost, little, as well as other adjectives from the same word field, whereas the inventory of synthetic markers comprises suffixes as, for instance, -ie, -ette, -let, -kin, -een, -s, -er, -poo and -pegs. These markers are examined from a grammatical and a pragmatic perspective in an integrative formal-functional framework. The grammatical perspective involves phonological, morphological and semantic features, while the pragmatic perspective involves pragmalinguistic as well as sociopragmatic features on the levels of the speech act and larger interactive units in dialogue. The findings reveal that English diminutive suffixes are, in fact, among the most productive suffixes of the English language. While the suffixes share a number of features, each has developed its own profile, specifically regarding semantic and pragmatic features. In everyday conversation, there is a division of labour between the synthetic and the analytic type of formation concerning the communicative functions of diminutives and their distribution in discourse. The choice of formal device and its function depend crucially on pragmatic factors, notably on the illocution, the interactive status, the realisation strategy, and the politeness value of the utterances in which diminutives are employed, and also on the relationship between the interlocutors.

Dialogical aspects of individual lexical search

The notion of communication strategy has been used in a twofold manner in second language research, äs operating on a cooperative basis in learnerlearner and learner-native-speaker conversation, and äs an aspect of individual inferior planning. We raise the issue of whether inferior planning is so different from dialogical interaction. Our thinking aloud protocols ofLl-L2 translations techniques applied by advanced learners are rather reminiscent of dialogues between the problem-conscious L2 user and her/himself. This interactional character manifests itself at all relevant levels (overatt structure, microstructure with adjacency pairs displaying dialogical Intonation, accompanying markers, partner-oriented forms such äs pronouns, etcetera).

Pragmatics of discourse

Discourse is language as it occurs, in any form or context, beyond the speech act. It may be written or spoken, monological or dialogical, but there is always a communicative aim or purpose. The present volume provides systematic orientation in the vast field of studying discourse from a pragmatic perspective. It first gives an overview of a range of approaches developed for the analysis of discourse, including, among others, conversation analysis, genre analysis, functional discourse grammar and corpus-driven approaches. The focus is furthermore on functional units in discourse, such as discourse markers, speech act sequences, interactional moves and phases, and also silence. Finally, the volume examines different types of discourse (e.g. narratives, service encounters, press releases) in various discourse domains (e.g. medical contexts, the media, education). Each article surveys the current state of the art of the respective topic area while also presenting new research findings.

Im)politeness and Regional Variation

This chapter examines how notions of (Im)politeness and appropriate behaviour may differ between regions in which the same language is spoken. Region is conceptualised as a macro-social factor interacting with other factors such as gender and age and impacting language use. Regional pragmatic variation has been found to occur at the national, subnational and local levels. The authors present two case studies illustrating differences between national varieties of English and of Spanish. Manifestations of appropriateness are compared across American, Canadian, English and Irish small talk, and rapport management is contrasted in service encounters in Ecuador and Spain. Both studies demonstrate how geographically distributed patterns of language use reflect diverging views of polite and appropriate verbal behaviour.

Genre Matters: Textual and Contextual Constraints on Contemporary English Speech Behaviour

Abstract In the present paper a plea is made for a more differentiated view of speech behaviour which takes intra-lingual variation into account. More specifically, this paper examines the factors constraining pragmatic variation in contemporary spoken English. Macro-social as well as textual parameters are considered, notably region and genre. Thanking exchanges serve as an example. In particular, responses to thanks are studied in British and American English by comparing their realizations in everyday conversation, different types of interviews, and also in some other genres. Previous findings are discussed in the light of these new data. The aim is to gain a further insight into the interaction of (con)textual variables.