Koei Shinzawa

Lysophosphatidylcholine as a death effector in the lipoapoptosis of hepatocytes

The pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is unclear, despite epidemiological data implicating FFAs. We studied the pathogenesis of NASH using lipoapoptosis models. Palmitic acid (PA) induced classical apoptosis of hepatocytes. PA-induced lipoapoptosis was inhibited by acyl-CoA synthetase inhibitor but not by ceramide synthesis inhibitors, suggesting that conversion products other than ceramide are involved. Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitors blocked PA-induced hepatocyte death, suggesting an important role for PLA2 and its product lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). Small interfering RNA for Ca2+-independent phospholipase A2 (iPLA2) inhibited the lipoapoptosis of hepatocytes. PA increased LPC content, which was reversed by iPLA2 inhibitors. Pertussis toxin or dominant-negative Gαi mutant inhibited hepatocyte death by PA or LPC acting through G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)/Gαi. PA decreased cardiolipin content and induced mitochondrial potential loss and cytochrome c translocation. Oleic acid inhibited PA-induced hepatocyte death by diverting PA to triglyceride and decreasing LPC content, suggesting that FFAs lead to steatosis or lipoapoptosis according to the abundance of saturated/unsaturated FFAs. LPC administration induced hepatitis in vivo. LPC content was increased in the liver specimens from NASH patients. These results demonstrate that LPC is a death effector in the lipoapoptosis of hepatocytes and suggest potential therapeutic values of PLA2 inhibitors or GPCR/Gαi inhibitors in NASH.

Neuroaxonal Dystrophy Caused by Group VIA Phospholipase A2 Deficiency in Mice: A Model of Human Neurodegenerative Disease

Calcium-independent group VIA phospholipase A2 (iPLA2β) is considered to play a role in signal transduction and maintenance of homeostasis or remodeling of membrane phospholipids. A role of iPLA2β has been suggested in various physiological and pathological processes, including immunity, chemotaxis, and cell death, but the details remain unclear. Accordingly, we investigated mice with targeted disruption of the iPLA2β gene. iPLA2β−/− mice developed normally and grew to maturity, but all showed evidence of severe motor dysfunction, including a hindlimb clasping reflex during tail suspension, abnormal gait, and poor performance in the hanging wire grip test. Neuropathological examination of the nervous system revealed widespread degeneration of axons and/or synapses, accompanied by the presence of numerous spheroids (swollen axons) and vacuoles. These findings provide evidence that impairment of iPLA2β causes neuroaxonal degeneration, and indicate that the iPLA2β−/− mouse is an appropriate animal model of human neurodegenerative diseases associated with mutations of the iPLA2β gene, such as infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy and neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation.

PLA2 activity is required for nuclear shrinkage in caspase-independent cell death

Apoptosis is defined on the basis of morphological changes like nuclear fragmentation and chromatin condensation, which are dependent on caspases. Many forms of caspase-independent cell death have been reported, but the mechanisms are still poorly understood. We found that hypoxic cell death was independent of caspases and was associated with significant nuclear shrinkage. Neither Bcl-2 nor Apaf-1 deficiency prevented hypoxic nuclear shrinkage. To understand the molecular mechanism of the nuclear shrinkage, we developed an in vitro system using permeabilized cells, which allowed us to purify a novel member of the phospholipase A2 (PLA2) family that induced nuclear shrinkage. Purified PLA2 induced nuclear shrinkage in our permeabilized cell system. PLA2 inhibitors prevented hypoxic nuclear shrinkage in cells and cell death. Hypoxia caused elevation of PLA2 activity and translocation of intracellular PLA2s to the nucleus. Knockdown of the Ca2+-independent PLA2 delayed nuclear shrinkage and cell death. These results indicate that Ca2+-independent PLA2 is crucial for a caspase-independent cell death signaling pathway leading to nuclear shrinkage.

Neuroaxonal dystrophy in calcium-independent phospholipase A2β deficiency results from insufficient remodeling and degeneration of mitochondrial and presynaptic membranes.

Infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy (INAD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the widespread presence of axonal swellings (spheroids) in the CNS and PNS and is caused by gene abnormality in PLA2G6 [calcium-independent phospholipase A2β (iPLA2β)], which is essential for remodeling of membrane phospholipids. To clarify the pathomechanism of INAD, we pathologically analyzed the spinal cords and sciatic nerves of iPLA2β knock-out (KO) mice, a model of INAD. At 15 weeks (preclinical stage), periodic acid-Schiff (PAS)-positive granules were frequently observed in proximal axons and the perinuclear space of large neurons, and these were strongly positive for a marker of the mitochondrial outer membrane and negative for a marker of the inner membrane. By 100 weeks (late clinical stage), PAS-positive granules and spheroids had increased significantly in the distal parts of axons, and ultrastructural examination revealed that these granules were, in fact, mitochondria with degenerative inner membranes. Collapse of mitochondria in axons was accompanied by focal disappearance of the cytoskeleton. Partial membrane loss at axon terminals was also evident, accompanied by degenerative membranes in the same areas. Imaging mass spectrometry showed a prominent increase of docosahexaenoic acid-containing phosphatidylcholine in the gray matter, suggesting insufficient membrane remodeling in the presence of iPLA2β deficiency. Prominent axonal degeneration in neuroaxonal dystrophy might be explained by the collapse of abnormal mitochondria after axonal transportation. Insufficient remodeling and degeneration of mitochondrial inner membranes and presynaptic membranes appear to be the cause of the neuroaxonal dystrophy in iPLA2β-KO mice.

Analysis of Two Major Intracellular Phospholipases A2 (PLA2) in Mast Cells Reveals Crucial Contribution of Cytosolic PLA2α, Not Ca2+-independent PLA2β, to Lipid Mobilization in Proximal Mast Cells and Distal Fibroblasts

Background: Mast cells express cPLA2α and iPLA2β. Results: Knock-out of cPLA2α, not iPLA2β, hampers arachidonic acid mobilization in mast cells and adjacent fibroblasts. Conclusion: Mast cell cPLA2α is coupled with stromal synthesis of anti-allergic PGE2, whereas iPLA2β is dispensable for mast cell function. Significance: The cPLA2α-dependent transcellular PGE2 synthesis opens new insight into the lipid biochemistry and mast cell biology fields. Mast cells release a variety of mediators, including arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites, to regulate allergy, inflammation, and host defense, and their differentiation and maturation within extravascular microenvironments depend on the stromal cytokine stem cell factor. Mouse mast cells express two major intracellular phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), namely group IVA cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2α) and group VIA Ca2+-independent PLA2 (iPLA2β), and the role of cPLA2α in eicosanoid synthesis by mast cells has been well documented. Lipidomic analyses of mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) lacking cPLA2α (Pla2g4a−/−) or iPLA2β (Pla2g6−/−) revealed that phospholipids with AA were selectively hydrolyzed by cPLA2α, not by iPLA2β, during FcϵRI-mediated activation and even during fibroblast-dependent maturation. Neither FcϵRI-dependent effector functions nor maturation-driven phospholipid remodeling was impaired in Pla2g6−/− BMMCs. Although BMMCs did not produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), the AA released by cPLA2α from BMMCs during maturation was converted to PGE2 by microsomal PGE synthase-1 (mPGES-1) in cocultured fibroblasts, and accordingly, Pla2g4a−/− BMMCs promoted microenvironmental PGE2 synthesis less efficiently than wild-type BMMCs both in vitro and in vivo. Mice deficient in mPGES-1 (Ptges−/−) had an augmented local anaphylactic response. These results suggest that cPLA2α in mast cells is functionally coupled, through the AA transfer mechanism, with stromal mPGES-1 to provide anti-anaphylactic PGE2. Although iPLA2β is partially responsible for PGE2 production by macrophages and dendritic cells, it is dispensable for mast cell maturation and function.

Essential role of p38 MAPK in caspase-independent, iPLA2-dependent cell death under hypoxia/low glucose conditions

Here, we show that p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase is activated under hypoxia. A selective inhibitor of p38 or decrease in the p38alpha protein level prevents hypoxia‐induced cell death. The p38 inhibitor abolishes PLA2 activation by hypoxia, indicating that p38 acts upstream of PLA2. The antioxidant N‐acetyl‐cysteine inhibits activation of p38 and cell death induced by hypoxia, indicating that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are responsible for p38 activation. These results demonstrate that the ROS/p38/PLA2 signaling axis has a crucial role in caspase‐independent cell death induced by hypoxia.

Analysis of two major intracellular phospholipase A2s in mast cells reveals crucial contribution of cPLA2α, not iPLA2β, to lipid mobilization in proximal mast cells and distal fibroblasts

Background: Mast cells express cPLA2α and iPLA2β. Results: Knock-out of cPLA2α, not iPLA2β, hampers arachidonic acid mobilization in mast cells and adjacent fibroblasts. Conclusion: Mast cell cPLA2α is coupled with stromal synthesis of anti-allergic PGE2, whereas iPLA2β is dispensable for mast cell function. Significance: The cPLA2α-dependent transcellular PGE2 synthesis opens new insight into the lipid biochemistry and mast cell biology fields. Mast cells release a variety of mediators, including arachidonic acid (AA) metabolites, to regulate allergy, inflammation, and host defense, and their differentiation and maturation within extravascular microenvironments depend on the stromal cytokine stem cell factor. Mouse mast cells express two major intracellular phospholipases A2 (PLA2s), namely group IVA cytosolic PLA2 (cPLA2α) and group VIA Ca2+-independent PLA2 (iPLA2β), and the role of cPLA2α in eicosanoid synthesis by mast cells has been well documented. Lipidomic analyses of mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs) lacking cPLA2α (Pla2g4a−/−) or iPLA2β (Pla2g6−/−) revealed that phospholipids with AA were selectively hydrolyzed by cPLA2α, not by iPLA2β, during FcϵRI-mediated activation and even during fibroblast-dependent maturation. Neither FcϵRI-dependent effector functions nor maturation-driven phospholipid remodeling was impaired in Pla2g6−/− BMMCs. Although BMMCs did not produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), the AA released by cPLA2α from BMMCs during maturation was converted to PGE2 by microsomal PGE synthase-1 (mPGES-1) in cocultured fibroblasts, and accordingly, Pla2g4a−/− BMMCs promoted microenvironmental PGE2 synthesis less efficiently than wild-type BMMCs both in vitro and in vivo. Mice deficient in mPGES-1 (Ptges−/−) had an augmented local anaphylactic response. These results suggest that cPLA2α in mast cells is functionally coupled, through the AA transfer mechanism, with stromal mPGES-1 to provide anti-anaphylactic PGE2. Although iPLA2β is partially responsible for PGE2 production by macrophages and dendritic cells, it is dispensable for mast cell maturation and function.

Noxa is necessary for hydrogen peroxide-induced caspase-dependent cell death

MINT‐7543162: Mcl‐1 (uniprotkb:Q07820) physically interacts (MI:0914) with Bim EL (uniprotkb:O43521), Bim L (uniprotkb:O43521) and NOXA (uniprotkb:Q13794) by anti bait coimmunoprecipitation (MI:0006)

High expression of α-synuclein in damaged mitochondria with PLA2G6 dysfunction

To clarify the role of α-synuclein (αSyn) in neuronal membrane remodeling, we analyzed the expression of αSyn in neurons with a dysfunction of PLA2G6, which is indispensable for membrane remodeling. αSyn/phosphorylated-αSyn (PαSyn) distribution and neurodegeneration were quantitatively estimated in PLA2G6-knockout (KO) mice, which demonstrate marked mitochondrial membrane degeneration. We also assessed the relationship between αSyn deposits and mitochondria in brain tissue from patients with PLA2G6-associated neurodegeneration (PLAN) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), and quantitatively examined Lewy bodies (LBs) and neurons. The expression level of αSyn was elevated in PLA2G6-knockdown cells and KO mouse neurons. Strong PαSyn expression was observed in neuronal granules in KO mice before onset of motor symptoms. The granules were mitochondrial outer membrane protein (TOM20)-positive. Ultramicroscopy revealed that PαSyn-positive granules were localized to mitochondria with degenerated inner membranes. After symptom onset, TOM20-positive granules were frequently found in ubiquitinated spheroids, where PαSyn expression was low. Axons were atrophic, but the neuronal loss was not evident in KO mice. In PLAN neurons, small PαSyn-positive inclusions with a TOM20-positive edge were frequently observed and clustered into LBs. The surfaces of most LBs were TOM20-positive in PLAN and TOM20-negative in PD brains. The high proportion of LB-bearing neurons and the preserved neuronal number in PLAN suggested long-term survival of LB-bearing neurons. Elevated expression of αSyn/PαSyn in mitochondria appears to be the early response to PLA2G6-deficiency in neurons. The strong affinity of αSyn for damaged mitochondrial membranes may promote membrane stabilization of mitochondria and neuronal survival in neurons.

Adult olfactory sphere cells are a source of oligodendrocyte and Schwann cell progenitors

The olfactory epithelial layer contains multipotent horizontal basal cells (HBCs) that differentiate into olfactory sensory neurons. Here, we show that rat HBCs express oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) and astrocyte markers. We generated olfactory sphere (OS) cells in cultures that were derived from adult rat olfactory mucosa. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting and immunofluorescence analyses showed that OS cells also express OPC and astrocyte markers. Interestingly, OS cells underwent oligodendrocyte differentiation in vitro. To study oligodendrocyte differentiation in vivo, OS cells were transplanted into injured rat spinal cords. The transplanted cells integrated into host tissue and differentiated into oligodendrocytes. When transected saphenous nerve ends were encased in collagen-containing silicone tubes with or without OS cells, the transplanted OS cells differentiated into Schwann cells. Our data provide new insights into of the stemness of OS cells.