Kris Mohandie

The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations

Over the past three decades, there has been a noted increase in hostage and barricade incidents involving perpetrators with a variety of emotional, economic, and political motives. A hostage incident may be defined as an incident in which (a) perpetrator(s) hold(s) one or more persons against their will in a location known to police. A barricade incident, on the other hand, is an incident without hostages in which a perpetrator is barricaded, also in a location known to police and refusing to surrender. Approximately 25 years ago, a theory of crisis/hostage negotiations was developed which has been continuously refined in field applications. This article will define the goal of crisis/hostage negotiation, review the history of hostage taking from biblical times to the present, review the utilization of psychologists and other mental health consultants by police crisis/hostage negotiation teams, and discuss the four roles and related functions of psychologists on crisis/hostage negotiation teams.

Suicide by Cop Among Officer-Involved Shooting Cases

Abstract:  The frequency and characteristics of suicide by cop cases (SBC) among a large (n = 707) nonrandom sample of North American officer‐involved shootings (OIS) were investigated. “Suicide by cop” is when a subject engages in behavior which poses an apparent risk of serious injury or death, with the intent to precipitate the use of deadly force by law enforcement against the subject. Thirty‐six percent of the OIS in this sample were found to be SBC with high interrater agreement (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.93) for category classification. SBC cases were more likely to result in the death or injury of the subjects than regular OIS cases. Most SBC cases were spontaneous, but had clear verbal and behavioral indicators that occurred prior to, and during the event. Findings confirm the trend detected in earlier research that there was a growing incidence of SBC among OIS. SBC individuals had a high likelihood of possessing a weapon (80%), which was a firearm 60% of the time. Half of those with a firearm discharged it at the police during the encounter. Nineteen percent simulated weapon possession to accomplish their suicidal intent. Other findings highlight the histories and commonalities in this high risk group.

Suicide and violence risk in law enforcement: practical guidelines for risk assessment, prevention, and intervention.

Research and anecdotal reports indicate that suicide and violence risk may be higher among members of law enforcement than those in other occupational categories. This article examines the phenomenon of suicide and violence risk within this population, and law enforcement cultural variables that may contribute to elevated risk. Suicide and violence risk factors and clues unique to law enforcement are described, as are intervention approaches which may be helpful to managing and reducing risk.

The female stalker

A study of 143 female stalkers was conducted, part of a large North American sample of stalkers (N=1005) gathered from law enforcement, prosecutorial, and entertainment corporate security files (Mohandie, Meloy, Green McGowan, & Williams, 2006). The typical female stalker was a single, separated, or divorced woman in her mid-30s with a psychiatric diagnosis, most often a mood disorder. She was more likely to pursue a male acquaintance, stranger, or celebrity, rather than a prior sexual intimate. When compared with male stalkers, the female stalkers had significantly less frequent criminal histories, and were significantly less threatening and violent. Their pursuit behavior was less proximity based, and their communications were more benign than those of the males. The average duration of stalking was 17 months, but the modal duration was two months. Stalking recidivism was 50%, with modal time between intervention and re-contacting the victim of one day. Any prior actual relationship (sexual intimate or acquaintance) significantly increased the frequency of threats and violence with large effect sizes for the entire female sample. The most dangerous subgroup was the prior sexually intimate stalkers, of whom the majority both threatened and were physically violent. The least dangerous were the female stalkers of Hollywood celebrities. Two of the McEwan, Mullen, MacKenzie, and Ogloff (2009b) predictor variables for stalking violence among men were externally validated with moderate effect sizes for the women: threats were associated with increased risk of violence, and letter writing was associated with decreased risk of violence.

False Victimization Syndromes in Stalking

Publisher Summary This chapter illustrates the false victimization syndromes in stalking. When suspicions arise that a stalking complaint might not be legitimate, there are at least 12 categories of descriptors. Moreover, these should be assessed to determine the presence of a potential false victimization syndrome. Victim presentation refers to the kinds of behavior the victims engage in, and whether this behavior is consistent with typical victim behavior or not. Enlistment of others refers to the manner in which the complainant interfaces with the individuals support system around the incident. In some cases of false victimization it is not at all uncommon to clearly see the obvious secondary gains that the victim is getting out of the allegations. Psychological data refers to whether there are any mental health problems in the victims background. Historical clues include information gleaned from the history of the complainant and other collateral sources that may point in the direction of a false allegation. Suspect problems refer to problems with the victims description of the suspect, often centering on the notion that the victims characterization of the suspect conflicts with known suspect behavior.

Hostage and Barricade Incidents Within an Officer-Involved Shooting Sample: Suicide by Cop, Intervention Efficacy, and Descriptive Characteristics

The study analyzed 84 hostage, barricade, and jumper cases from within a large sample (n = 707) of officer-involved shooting (OIS) cases occurring between 1998 and 2006. Seventy-six percent of these incidents involved suicidal individuals—66% were ultimately determined to be suicide by cop (SbC), nearly twice the likelihood in the overall sample. Most of the subjects were males, average age 36, involved in an unplanned event that escalated into an SbC attempt. Seventy-one percent of OIS subjects in the hostage barricade group survived the encounter, while only 33% of the SbC subjects did, a statistically significant difference in mortality rate. Of the 43 cases where crisis negotiation and verbal techniques were attempted with SbC subjects, they made no significant difference in outcome. Length of time also did not decrease risk of injury or death. Behavioral resolve to die on the part of the subject appears to be a key determinant of outcome. Suicide-by-cop ideation and intent is a high-risk indicator for subject fatality and injury in hostage and barricade incidents, and needs to be quickly and accurately assessed.

The Concept of Identification in Threat Assessment.

Identification is one of eight warning behaviors--superordinate patterns of accelerating risk--that are theorized to correlate with targeted violence, and have some empirical validation. It is characterized by one or more of five characteristics: pseudo-commando behavior, evidence of a warrior mentality, a close association with weapons or other military or law enforcement paraphernalia, wanting to imitate and often surmount previous attackers or assassins, or believing oneself to be an agent to advance a particular cause or belief system. The authors briefly explore the history of the psychology of identification, its current usage, and its application to threat assessment. Four cases are used to illustrate identification as both a process and a product, and a likely motive for targeted violence in some subjects. Its operational relevance for threat assessment is suggested.

Predictors of recidivism by stalkers: A nine-year follow-up of police contacts

In a subsample of a multisite stalking study (Mohandie, Meloy, McGowan, & Williams, 2006) comprising 78 offenders from one site, 77% committed new offenses within an average follow-up of 106 months (8.8 years). Over half (56%) were charged for new stalking related offenses and 33% for violent recidivism. Violent reoffending, including sexual offenses, was predicted by risk factors consistent with existing literature: younger age at first conviction, prior release failures, and criminal history. Stalking recidivism was predicted by pre-index offending scores, using the Cormier-Lang, and prior diagnosis of a mental illness. In addition, stalkers with previously diagnosed mental illness had significantly more police contacts as complainants than those without; their recidivism was also more likely to be non-violent.

Suicide by Cop Among Female Subjects in Officer‐Involved Shooting Cases

Abstract:  An analysis of suicide by cop (SBC) among female subjects in a large sample (n = 707) of officer‐involved shootings (OIS) is reported. Women represented 3% of the total sample (n = 21) and 5% (n = 12) of the 256 SBC cases. Therefore, 57% of the women (n = 12) were classified as SBC, and 81% of the women (n = 17) behaviorally evidenced some suicidal motivation. The results underscore that when a female subject becomes involved in a situation leading to an OIS, there is a very high likelihood that she is motivated to be intentionally killed. She is almost guaranteed to have a diagnosed mental disorder, has been prescribed psychiatric medications, and is abusing a substance at the time, most likely alcohol. Nevertheless, she also poses a serious risk of injury to both police officers and civilians during the encounter and will possess a firearm half the time. The wish for suicide is often precipitated by serious relationship issues. Comparisons are made to the male subjects in our previous study.

Stalking Behavior and Crisis Negotiation

ABSTRACT The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of stalking behavior and its impact upon some hostage and barricaded subject situations. Specific statistics are lacking about the frequency of stalking behavior in hostage/barricade scenarios; however, anecdotal evidence and indirect measures suggest that stalking behavior occurs as an antecedent with enough frequency to warrant attention to the phenomenon. For example, recent HOBAS data (FBI, December 9, 2002) pertaining to 3,547 subjects indicated that a current or prior restraining order was in effect in nearly eight percent of the situations and that the victim was a current or former spouse or significant other in nearly 19 percent of the situations where there was a victim (N = 934). Such statistics imply that stalking may be a fairly common background dynamic preceding and contributing to the development of hostage/barricade cases.