Kristen Marcussen

Extending identity theory to predict differential forms and degrees of psychological distress

We propose an explanation of how identities influence the way people experience distress. The formulation we offer draws on the strengths of sociological and psychological theories of stress, combining the advantages of Burkes identity theory (1991, 1996) and Higginsself-discrepancy theory (1987, 1989). The incorporation of self-discrepancy theory into identity theory provides specification of important dimensions of meaning (obligations and aspirations). Disruption of an identity process is predicted to result in anxiety to the extent that the identity it is oriented toward fulfilling obligations, and is expected to result in depression to the extent that it is aspiration oriented. The degree of distress associated with an identity is a function of the size of the disruption and the salience and organization of the identity. This reformulation allows a better understanding of how changes or disruptions associated with identities will impact emotional well-being.

The Role of Identity Salience and Commitment in the Stress Process

The relationship between identity and stress has been the focus of numerous studies. An assumption of much of this research is that the impact of stress on psychological distress is exacerbated when it threatens identities that are important to an individuals self-definition. In this study we investigate the moderating effect of identity in the stress process. Specifically, we examine whether identity salience and commitment influence the relationship between role-strain and depression, as well as between strain and self-evaluation (i.e., self-esteem and mastery). Using longitudinal data, we find some support that commitment moderates the relationship between strain in the student identity and both mastery and depression. Our findings indicate that the extent to which identity meaning exacerbates the effect of strain on self-evaluation and well-being depends on the type of strain, the particular identity characteristic, and the outcome variable examined.

Identities, Self-Esteem, and Psychological Distress: An Application of Identity-Discrepancy Theory

Social psychological approaches to mental health often emphasize the link between social roles and psychological distress. Idenity theorists, in particular, explain distress in terms of the meanings that roles hold for individuals. This research draws from sociological and psychological models of self and identity to explain how distress arises from discrepancies that occur among aspirations, obligations, and perceptions of role-identities. It also examines the role of self-esteem as both an outcome of identity discrepancies and a buffer in the relationship between identity discrepancy and distress. The results of this study indicate that although discrepancies related to aspirations tend to be associated with lower levels of depression and higher self-esteem, obligation-related identity discrepancies do not predict distress or self-evaluation. As expected, individuals with lower levels of self-esteem suffer more from aspiration-related discrepancies than do individuals with higher levels of self-esteem; however, individuals with higher self-esteem are more reactive to obligation discrepancies. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Using Identity Discrepancy Theory to Predict Psychological Distress

An important goal of stress research is to clarify the processes by which external conditions result in psychological distress (e.g., Burke, 1991b 1996; Holmes and Rahe, 1967; Mirowsky and Ross, 1989; Thoits, 1991). In addition to specifying the relationship between stress and distress, mental health scholars have become increasingly interested in predicting specific forms of distress (Aneshensel, 1992; Mirowsky and Ross, 1989). Sociological social psychologists in general, and identity theorists in particular, have focused on the relationship between selfand social structure to explain how external conditions impact emotional states. Although some theorists have linked identities with psychological distress (Burke, 1991b; 1996; Simon, 1992; Thoits, 1986; 1991), the impact of identity meanings on stress processes, as well as the ability to predict specific distress outcomes, deserves further attention.

The Effect of Services and Stigma on Quality of Life for Persons With Serious Mental Illnesses

OBJECTIVE This study examined the effects of mental health services and stigma on self-concept and quality of life among individuals with serious and persistent mental illnesses. METHODS A broad array of inpatient and outpatient services, as well as perceptions of stigma, was assessed among 188 individuals who had been diagnosed as having serious mental illnesses. Quality of life and self-concept (that is, self-esteem and mastery) were also assessed at baseline and follow-up (approximately six months). RESULTS Receiving mental health services had an effect on changes in quality of life over time. Specifically, receiving counseling services had a positive influence on quality of life, whereas receiving inpatient services decreased quality of life. Stigma was not significantly associated with changes in quality of life over the study period. Self-esteem and mastery influenced the association between stigma and quality of life but did not influence the relationship between services and quality of life. Finally, although services had little effect on changes in self-concept, perceived stigma significantly reduced both self-esteem and mastery. CONCLUSIONS The extent to which services influenced quality of life was dependent on the type of service examined. Moreover, although the effects of services were more pronounced with respect to quality of life than self-concept, the opposite was true with respect to the effects of stigma. Efforts should be made to increase access to specific types of services, such as counseling, as well as to reduce negative perceptions of stigma that erode self-image among individuals with serious mental illnesses.

Race differences in the relationship between role experiences and well-being.

Theory and research generally support the notion that social roles benefit subjective well-being. These conclusions, however, are largely based on studies examining Whites. Studies that have included Blacks have found race differences in the influence of social roles on well-being, yet most of these studies focus on role occupancy. With few exceptions, little attention has been paid to whether there are race differences in how individuals experience their roles, and the extent to which race differences in role experiences relate to differences in well-being. In this article we examine racial variation in the experience of work and family roles. We find that Blacks and Whites are similar in their experiences of role conflict and perceptions of role success and balance, but the association between these experiences and well-being varies, to some extent, by race and gender. The implications of these findings as well as suggestions for future research are discussed.

The Role of Aspirations and Obligations in Explaining the Relationship between Identity Discrepancies and Psychological Distress

Using a national sample of adults, we examine the relationship between identity discrepancies and mental health in spouse and worker identities. Building on previous research, we predict that discrepancies between how individuals want to be with respect to a particular identity (aspirations) and perceptions of how others view them in that identity (reflected appraisals) will be associated with depressive symptoms. Alternatively, discrepancies between how individuals feels they should be (obligations) and reflected appraisals will be associated with anxiety symptoms. We further examine whether identity salience moderates the relationship between discrepancies and distress. We find aspiration discrepancies are associated with depression as predicted in the spouse identity but not for the worker identity. With respect to obligation discrepancies, we find evidence for the predicted relationships for the spouse and worker identity only when identities are considered salient. We discuss the implications of our findings for the development of identity models of distress.

Revisiting the Relationships among Community Mental Health Services, Stigma, and Well-Being

Abstract Purpose This chapter examines the effects of mental health services and stigma on changes in self-concept and well-being for individuals with SPMI. Methodology/approach Data for this chapter come from structured interviews and service data for 140 individuals with severe and persistent mental illnesses. We use structural equation modeling to examine the relationship between perceived and internalized stigma, as well as the relationships among stigma, self-concept (self-esteem and mastery), and well-being (quality of life and functioning). Findings We find that case management is negatively related to quality of life and psychiatric services are positively related to functioning. Crisis services and assessment are associated with mastery in opposite directions. Internalized stigma is positively associated with self-esteem and mastery, and negatively associated with functioning. We do not find a relationship between services and stigma. Research limitations/implications A limitation to this chapter is the sample size, which prohibits us from examining a full range of services and outcomes. Nonetheless, our findings provide information about how services and stigma impact well-being, and may be used as a starting point for considering strategies for improving services and reducing stigma. Future work should consider pairing outcomes with services to determine their effectiveness. Originality/value This chapter builds on previous research that examines the relative effects of services and stigma among individuals in community health care by extending measures of both services and stigma, and by examining the relationship between them, in order to better determine their implications for self-concept and well-being.