Kristine J. Ajrouch

The Convoy Model: Explaining Social Relations From a Multidisciplinary Perspective

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Social relations are a key aspect of aging and the life course. In this paper, we trace the scientific origins of the study of social relations, focusing in particular on research grounded in the convoy model. DESIGN AND METHODS We first briefly review and critique influential historical studies to illustrate how the scientific study of social relations developed. Next, we highlight early and current findings grounded in the convoy model that have provided key insights into theory, method, policy, and practice in the study of aging. RESULTS Early social relations research, while influential, lacked the combined approach of theoretical grounding and methodological rigor. Nevertheless, previous research findings, especially from anthropology, suggested the importance of social relations in the achievement of positive outcomes. Considering both life span and life course perspectives and grounded in a multidisciplinary perspective, the convoy model was developed to unify and consolidate scattered evidence while at the same time directing future empirical and applied research. Early findings are summarized, current evidence presented, and future directions projected. IMPLICATIONS The convoy model has provided a useful framework in the study of aging, especially for understanding predictors and consequences of social relations across the life course.

Assimilating to a white identity: The case of Arab Americans

Racial identity is one of the primary means by which immigrants assimilate to the United States. Drawing from the tenets of segmented assimilation, this study examines how the ethnic traits of immigrant status, national origin, religious affiliation, and Arab Americaness contribute to the announcement of a white racial identity using a regionally representative sample of Arab Americans. Results illustrate that those who were Lebanese/Syrian or Christian, and those who felt that the term “Arab American” does not describe them, were more likely to identify as white. In addition, among those who affirmed that the pan-ethnic term “Arab American” does describe them, results illustrated that strongly held feelings about being Arab American and associated actions were also linked with a higher likelihood of identifying as white. Findings point to different patterns of assimilation among Arab Americans. Some segments of Arab Americans appear to report both strong ethnic and white identities, while others report a strong white identity, yet distance themselves from the pan-ethnic “Arab American” label.

Racial and religious contexts: Situational identities among Lebanese and Somali Muslim immigrants

Abstract This study addresses the racial and religious contexts of identity formation among Lebanese immigrants to the United States of America and Somali immigrants to Canada. Each enters with a different racial status: Lebanese as white; Somalis as black/visible minority. Ethnographic interviews explore the strategies of adaptation and identity development within these groups. Specifically, we compare and contrast the Lebanese and Somali experience through an analysis of ethnic relations in the country of origin, the conditions of immigration, and through accounts of their encounters and identity negotiation with the host society. We demonstrate the strategies each group implements to negotiate both race and religion in identity development. Our findings reveal that each group attempts to make their religious identity evident, however, Somali immigrants must negotiate the effects of ‘othering’ processes with both race and religion, while Lebanese immigrants build a religious identity from privileges afforded to them by virtue of their white racial status.

The effect of social relations with children on the education-health link in men and women aged 40 and over

Accumulated evidence demonstrates a strong relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. Our examination of this relationship focuses on education, an established indicator of SES, and tests whether social relations, particularly with children, mediate and/or moderate the education-health link for middle-aged and older parents. The data are drawn from a regionally representative sample of adults (aged 40-93) in the Detroit area, USA. All analyses are stratified by gender (N=males: 330; females: 468). A series of multiple regression analyses were performed to test whether social relations mediate the association between education and health. Although analyses revealed no mediation effect, both men and women with less education were found to have smaller social networks. Women with more education confided less in their children than women with less education did. A series of hierarchical regression analyses were performed to test whether social relations variables moderate the relationship between education and health. Separate analyses by gender indicated that men, but not women, with less education who had larger networks and who perceived emotional, financial and sick care support to be available from a child had lower scores on a health problems index. Findings indicate that the health of lower-educated men in the presence of key social supports parallels the advantaged health status of men with higher levels of education. These findings suggest that social relationships may be a protective factor for the health of men in the lower socioeconomic strata.

Perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress: does social support matter?

Objectives. We investigate the association between perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress among urban African-American women with young children (under 6 years) living in low-income neighborhoods. Specifically, we examine whether instrumental and emotional social support moderates the association between perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress. Design. The data come from the Detroit Dental Health Project, a two-stage area probability sample representative of low-income African-American children in the city of Detroit. The analysis focuses on 969 female caregivers of young children. A series of hierarchical regression analyses were performed to examine the role of social support in the link between perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress, with appropriate adjustments for the complex sample design. Results. Both moderate and high frequency levels of discrimination were associated with higher levels of psychological distress after controlling for age, education, income, and self-rated health. There was a main effect of emotional support so that availability of emotional support was associated with less psychological distress. Instrumental support exerted a buffering effect to mitigate the negative influence of moderate levels of perceived discrimination on psychological distress. Conclusion. Findings suggest that instrumental social support provides some protection from everyday stress. Social support, however, does not offset the impact of acute stress caused by frequent perceptions of everyday discrimination.

Resources and Well-being Among Arab-American Elders

This study addresses diversity of aging experiences by examining the associations among immigrant status, religious affiliation, and resources in the form of both human and social capital with the well-being of Arab-American elders. Data were drawn from a face-to-face survey of 101 Arab-American men and women aged 56 and over living in the metropolitan Detroit area. Correlations demonstrate that religious affiliation is not associated with well-being. Multiple regression analyses reveal that U.S. born Arab Americans reported less frequent feelings of depression and greater life satisfaction than did immigrants, but this variation appears to be accounted for by human capital indicators including education level and language. Social capital including perceptions of the ability to confide in child and relationship quality with spouse is significantly associated with well-being, yet does not constitute a pathway to well-being for Arab-American elders. Human and social capital represent valuable resources and their distribution within this immigrant/ethnic group is associated with noteworthy variations in well-being.

Situational Stressors Among African-American Women Living in Low-Income Urban Areas: The Role of Social Support

We investigated the role of social support in the stress process by focusing on African-American women caring for young children in a high-poverty socio-economic context. Data came from 736 women living in Detroit who completed face-to-face interviews in 2002–2003 and 2004–2005. Regression analyses illustrated that the influence of social support varied according to instrumental and emotional support types as well as the stressor examined. Transportation and childcare support partially buffered the negative effects of food insufficiency on psychological distress. Financial support buffered the influence of neighborhood disorganization on psychological distress. Findings help to explicate further the complex role of social support in the stress process and have implications for social policy.

Survey Methods and Aging Research in an Arab Sociocultural Context—A Case Study from Beirut, Lebanon

OBJECTIVES In Arab countries, the proportion of older adults is rapidly increasing, highlighting the need to conduct research on factors that influence aging. We describe the context-specific challenges faced and the solutions negotiated during the conduct of a survey study on family relations and aging in Greater Beirut, Lebanon. METHOD Drawing on the experience of a recently completed survey study, we reflect on the context-specific challenges faced and the solutions negotiated during the phases of questionnaire construction, interviewer training, sampling, and participant recruitment as a means to contribute to the growing area of cross-cultural survey research. RESULTS The social context of family relations influenced the nature of questions that can be included to obtain valid information. The unavailability of demographic data and the presence of cultural norms that promote deference to older adults also presented methodological challenges to the sampling and recruitment of older adults. DISCUSSION We provided illustrative examples on the importance of learning about a countrys social and cultural contexts, and the necessity of exercising flexibility in decision making to ensure the collection of valid data and the successful completion of the study. Lessons learned inform elements of the research process in an Arab country, as well as bring to light unusual, yet generalizable, circumstances that will inform experiences in other cultural settings.

Social and Cultural Meanings of Self-Rated Health: Arab Immigrants in the United States

Self-rated health (SRH) is used as an outcome measure in a vast number of epidemiologic studies, yet conceptual research into what the variable captures among diverse ethnic and immigrant groups remains limited. Utilizing data from 46 in-depth interviews among adult Arab immigrants in the United States, we examined the general criteria used to explain an SRH selection and the culturally embedded rationales individuals employ to construct meanings of health. Our findings showed that SRH is determined by two main criteria: presence/absence of health conditions and psychological well-being. In-depth analyses further revealed that Arab immigrants employ culturally embedded rationales to move away from extremes and project a view of good health as a state of balance and poor health as a state of imbalance. Our study adds to the limited conceptual knowledge on the meanings of subjective health evaluations among immigrants, and the findings suggest that exploring rationales provides richer information than focusing on criteria alone.

Prevalence of Disability among US- and Foreign-Born Arab Americans: Results from the 2000 US Census

Background:Although the prevalence of disability for various racial and ethnic groups has been documented, little attention has been paid to Arab Americans in the United States. Objectives: We estimated the age- and sex-adjusted prevalence of disability among older Arab Americans and examined the association between nativity status and self-reported physical and self-care disability before and after controlling for covariates. Methods: We used data from the 5% Public Use Microdata Samples of the 2000 US Census. Our sample included 4,225 individuals 65 years of age and older who identified with an Arab ancestry. Of these, 2,280 were foreign-born and 1,945 were US-born. Results: The age- and sex-adjusted prevalence of having a physical disability was 31.2% for foreign- and 23.4% for US-born older Arab Americans, and the age- and sex- adjusted prevalence of having a self-care disability was 13.5% for foreign- and 6.8% for US-born Arab Americans. Iraqis reported the highest estimates for both disabilities (physical, 36.2%; self-care, 19.8%) compared to other Arab ethnic groups. In the crude model, foreign-born Arab Americans were more likely (OR = 1.32; 95% CI = 1.28, 1.36) to report a physical disability compared to US-born Arab Americans. When adjusting for English language ability in the final model, the odds of having a physical disability for foreign-born Arab Americans was protective compared to US-born Arab Americans (OR = 0.92; 95% CI = 0.88, 0.96). In the crude model, foreign-born Arab Americans were 1.82 times (95% CI = 1.74, 1.90) more likely to report a self-care disability compared to US-born Arab Americans. In the fully adjusted model, this association was slightly attenuated (OR = 1.32; 95% CI = 1.24, 1.41). Conclusions: These findings indicate English language ability is associated with variations in reporting a physical disability. Future studies should include better measures of acculturation. Arab Americans are heterogeneous and should be disaggregated both by subgroups and from the white category in order to reveal a more accurate health and disease status profile for these groups. These efforts will assist in tailoring more effective interventions in reducing or preventing disability among Arab Americans 65 years of age and older.