Krzysztof Gwosdz

The crisis and beyond: the dynamics and restructuring of automotive industry in Poland

The paper considers the effects of the crisis on the restructuring of automotive industry in Poland and its possible impact on the long-term prospects of the sector in the country. The dynamics of Polish automotive exports and the performance of various automotive suppliers located in Poland, depending on their size, ownership, position in supply chain and labour costs, are explored. This is followed by the analysis of foreign and domestic company strategies as well as the regional effects of the changes in the industry. The factors behind the upgrading processes, new plant locations and delocalisation are discussed.

Polish Special Economic Zones: Idea versus Practice

In 1994 special economic zones (SEZs) were introduced in Poland as an instrument supporting regional development. Initially, the idea was to open just a handful of zones located in single-function industrial regions affected by or exposed to structural unemployment. Investor benefits included a full income-tax holiday for a half of the special zones life (typically ten years) and exemption from real-estate taxation. Subsequently, the initial conditions were considerably modified under the influence of various pressure groups, including the European Commission, the central government, major international investors, and local authorities. The tax benefits were reduced, but the eligibility was extended to new industries and new company types while the overall number of special zones consistently increased. With more than 150 locations enjoying a special status, the SEZs have lost their nature of regional policy tools, almost becoming standard forms of public aid for companies, regardless of their location. This shift in the approach to the special zones had a fundamental impact on the effects generated by the special zones. The investor appeal of areas where state support was essential to overcome a structural economic crisis was further undermined. Indeed, the bulk of investment and jobs was channeled to the zones comfortably located in southwestern Poland near large urban agglomerations with a labor market that was attractive to the investors (the Katowicka, Legnicka, and Wa-brzyska zones). However, few large and middle-sized investments were acquired by single-function industrial areas in crisis (Starachowicka and Tarnobrzeska SEZs) or by peripheral agricultural regions (Warmińsko-Mazurska i Suwalska SEZs). A notable exception to this rule is the first Polish special zone in Mielec: although peripherally located, it achieved success using the first-comer advantage it had over the subsequent zones.

The development of low-emission public urban transport in Poland

Abstract The aim of the paper is to identify the main factors and mechanisms behind the development of low-emission public transport vehicles in Polish cities. This innovation is primarily connected with growing environmental requirements for transport, with the EU environmental and transport policies being the key factors. However, strategies of local governments and municipal transport companies as well as the organization of urban transport - which differs significantly between cities - also play an important role. Three basic types of approach towards low-emission buses can be observed in Polish cities: tests of electric and hybrid vehicles, purchases of small quantities of buses in order to implement new solutions, and finally attempts to replace the majority or even the entire transport fleet with low-emission vehicles. It should be emphasised that an important element which affects the development of low emission public urban transport in Poland is the fact that the country has become one of the main bus producers in Europe - a fact which is a result of both large-scale foreign investments and the success of Polish manufacturers.

European semi-periphery under environmental pressure: the case of urban public bus transportation and private bus-makers in Poland

The authors explore the factors shaping the adoption of low-emission vehicles in urban public transportation in Poland. The country has leapfrogged to a position among European leaders in the manufacturing of hybrid and electric buses within 20 years due to foreign investors (Volvo) and domestic enterprises (Solaris). At the same time, the adoption of new powertrain technologies in urban public transportation has lagged behind Western Europe. Contrary to the hypothesis there is no hierarchical diffusion of hybrid and electric vehicles from major cities to medium-sized and smaller towns in Poland. EU regulations provide a general legal framework for environmentally-friendly public transportation; however, they do not determine the adoption rates of particular low-emissions technologies. The actual pattern of use of hybrid and electric vehicles in urban public transportation in Poland seems to depend on local factors in the main, including institutional arrangements, social and personal characteristics.