Krzysztof Ptak

Raphé Neurons Stimulate Respiratory Circuit Activity by Multiple Mechanisms via Endogenously Released Serotonin and Substance P

Brainstem serotonin (5-HT) neurons modulate activity of many neural circuits in the mammalian brain, but in many cases endogenous mechanisms have not been resolved. Here, we analyzed actions of raphé 5-HT neurons on respiratory network activity including at the level of the pre-Bötzinger complex (pre-BötC) in neonatal rat medullary slices in vitro, and in the more intact nervous system of juvenile rats in arterially perfused brainstem–spinal cord preparations in situ. At basal levels of activity, excitation of the respiratory network via simultaneous release of 5-HT and substance P (SP), acting at 5-HT2A/2C, 5-HT4, and/or neurokinin-1 receptors, was required to maintain inspiratory motor output in both the neonatal and juvenile systems. The midline raphé obscurus contained spontaneously active 5-HT neurons, some of which projected to the pre-BötC and hypoglossal motoneurons, colocalized 5-HT and SP, and received reciprocal excitatory connections from the pre-BötC. Experimentally augmenting raphé obscurus activity increased motor output by simultaneously exciting pre-BötC and motor neurons. Biophysical analyses in vitro demonstrated that 5-HT and SP modulated background cation conductances in pre-BötC and motor neurons, including a nonselective cation leak current that contributed to the resting potential, which explains the neuronal depolarization that augmented motor output. Furthermore, we found that 5-HT, but not SP, can transform the electrophysiological phenotype of some pre-BötC neurons to intrinsic bursters, providing 5-HT with an additional role in promoting rhythm generation. We conclude that raphé 5-HT neurons excite key circuit components required for generation of respiratory motor output.

Sodium Currents in Medullary Neurons Isolated from the Pre-Bötzinger Complex Region

The pre-Bötzinger complex (preBötC) in the ventrolateral medulla contains interneurons important for respiratory rhythm generation. Voltage-dependent sodium channels mediate transient current (INaT), underlying action potentials, and persistent current (INaP), contributing to repetitive firing, pacemaker properties, and the amplification of synaptic inputs. Voltage-clamp studies of the biophysical properties of these sodium currents were conducted on acutely dissociated preBötC region neurons. Reverse transcription-PCR demonstrated the presence of mRNA for Nav1.1, Nav1.2, and Nav1.6 α-subunits in individual neurons. A TTX-sensitive INaP was evoked in all tested neurons by ramp depolarization from -80 to 0 mV. Including a constant in the Boltzmann equation for inactivation by estimating the steady-state fraction of Na+ channels available for inactivation allowed prediction of a window current that did not decay to 0 at voltages positive to -20 mV and closely matched the measured INaP. Riluzole (3 μm), a putative INaP antagonist, reduced both INaP and INaT and produced a hyperpolarizing shift in the voltage dependence of steady-state inactivation. The latter decreased the predicted window current by an amount equivalent to the decrease in INaP. Riluzole also decreased the inactivation time constant at potentials in which the peak window/persistent currents are generated. Together, these findings imply that INaP and INaT arise from the same channels and that a simple modification of the Hodgkin-Huxley model can satisfactorily account for both currents. In the rostral ventral respiratory group (immediately caudal to preBötC), INaP was also detected, but peak conductance, current density, and input resistance were smaller than in preBötC region cells.

Nanotechnology-Based Cancer Therapeutics—Promise and Challenge—Lessons Learned Through the NCI Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer

ABSTRACTThe new generation of nanotechnology-based drug formulations is challenging the accepted ways of cancer treatment. Multi-functional nanomaterial constructs have the capability to be delivered directly to the tumor site and eradicate cancer cells selectively, while sparing healthy cells. Tailoring of the nano-construct design can result in enhanced drug efficacy at lower doses as compared to free drug treatment, wider therapeutic window, and lower side effects. Nanoparticle carriers can also address several drug delivery problems which could not be effectively solved in the past and include reduction of multi-drug resistance effects, delivery of siRNA, and penetration of the blood-brain-barrier. Although challenges in understanding toxicity, biodistribution, and paving an effective regulatory path must be met, nanoscale devices carry a formidable promise to change ways cancer is diagnosed and treated. This article summarizes current developments in nanotechnology-based drug delivery and discusses path forward in this field. The discussion is done in context of research and development occurring within the NCI Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer program.

The murine neurokinin NK1 receptor gene contributes to the adult hypoxic facilitation of ventilation

Substance P and neurokinin‐1 receptors (NK1) modulate the respiratory activity and are expressed early during development. We tested the hypothesis that NK1 receptors are involved in prenatal development of the respiratory network by comparing the resting respiratory activity and the respiratory response to hypoxia of control mice and mutant mice lacking the NK1 receptor (NK1−/−). In vitro and in vivo experiments were conducted on neonatal, young and adult mice from wild‐type and NK1−/− strains. In the wild strain, immunohistological, pharmacological and electrophysiological studies showed that NK1 receptors were expressed within medullary respiratory areas prior to birth and that their activation at birth modulated central respiratory activity and the membrane properties of phrenic motoneurons. Both the membrane properties of phrenic motoneurons and the respiratory activity generated in vitro by brainstem‐spinal cord preparation from NK1−/− neonate mice were similar to that from the wild strain. In addition, in vivo ventilation recordings by plethysmography did not reveal interstrain differences in resting breathing parameters. The facilitation of ventilation by short‐lasting hypoxia was similar in wild and NK1−/− neonates but was significantly weaker in adult NK1−/− mice. Results demonstrate that NK1 receptors do appear to be necessary for a normal respiratory response to short‐lasting hypoxia in the adult. However, NK1 receptors are not obligatory for the prenatal development of the respiratory network, for the production of the rhythm, or for the regulation of breathing by short‐lasting hypoxia in neonates.

Intrinsic bursting activity in the pre-Bötzinger Complex: Role of persistent sodium and potassium currents

Abstract.Computational models of single pacemaker neuron and neural population in the pre-Bötzinger Complex (pBC) were developed based on the previous models by Butera et al. (1999a,b). Our modeling study focused on the conditions that could define endogenous bursting vs. tonic activity in single pacemaker neurons and population bursting vs. asynchronous firing in populations of pacemaker neurons. We show that both bursting activity in single pacemaker neurons and population bursting activity may be released or suppressed depending on the expression of persistent sodium (INaP) and delayed-rectifier potassium (IK) currents. Specifically, a transition from asynchronous firing to population bursting could be induced by a reduction of IK via a direct suppression of the potassium conductance or through an elevation of extracellular potassium concentration. Similar population bursting activity could be triggered by an augmentation of INaP. These findings are discussed in the context of the possible role of population bursting activity in the pBC in the respiratory rhythm generation in vivo vs. in vitro and during normal breathing in vivo vs. gasping.

Respiratory rhythm generation: converging concepts from in vitro and in vivo approaches?

The timing and activation pattern of breathing movements are determined by the respiratory network. This network is amenable to a variety of in vivo and in vitro approaches, which offers a unique opportunity to investigate multiple organizational levels. It is only recently, however, that concepts obtained under in vivo and in vitro conditions are being integrated into a coherent model of breathing behavior. For example, the pre-Bötzinger complex as an essential site for rhythm generation was first identified in vitro, but has since been verified in vivo. Conversely, timing signals provided by other central and peripheral neuronal areas have so far been investigated in vivo, but it is now possible to address these issues with more complex in vitro preparations. Several key issues remain unresolved. For example, to what extent is the respiratory pattern controlled independently of the underlying rhythm? Answers to this and other questions require a dissection of mechanisms that is only possible through a complementary combination of experimental approaches.

Kinetic Properties and Functional Dynamics of Sodium Channels during Repetitive Spiking in a Slow Pacemaker Neuron

We examined the kinetic properties of voltage-gated Na+ channels and their contribution to the repetitive spiking activity of medullary raphé neurons, which exhibit slow pacemaking and strong spiking adaptation. The study is based on a combination of whole-cell patch-clamp, modeling and real-time computation. Na+ currents were recorded from neurons in brain slices obtained from male and female neonatal rats, using voltage-clamp protocols designed to reduce space-clamp artifacts and to emphasize functionally relevant kinetic features. A detailed kinetic model was formulated to explain the broad range of transient and stationary voltage-dependent properties exhibited by Na+ currents. The model was tested by injecting via dynamic clamp a model-based current as a substitute for the native TTX-sensitive Na+ currents, which were pharmacologically blocked. The model-based current reproduced well the native spike shape and spiking frequency. The dynamics of Na+ channels during repetitive spiking were indirectly examined through this model. By comparing the spiking activities generated with different kinetic models in dynamic-clamp experiments, we determined that state-dependent slow inactivation contributes significantly to spiking adaptation. Through real-time manipulation of the model-based current, we established that suprathreshold Na+ current mainly controls spike shape, whereas subthreshold Na+ current modulates spiking frequency and contributes to the pacemaking mechanism. Since the model-based current was injected in the soma, the results also suggest that somatic Na+ channels are sufficient to establish the essential spiking properties of raphé neurons in vitro.

Respiratory Rhythm Generation: Prebötzinger Neuron Discharge Patterns and Persistent Sodium Current

Considerable evidence from several laboratories (c.f., Rekling and Feldman, Ramirez et al.) is consistent with the concept that the pBc contains the kernel of the central rhythm generating network for breathing. The work summarized in this manuscript is also generally consistent with this notion. Of particular note is the observation that pre-I neurons and E-Dec neurons maintain a consistent phase relationship with phrenic nerve activity and maintain a similar peak discharge rate despite marked changes in the phrenic nerve rhythm and pattern. Other categories of respiratory neurons failed to maintain this relationship. Hence, the findings are consistent with pBc pre-I and E-Dec neurons having a key role in rhythm generation. A persistent sodium current has been postulated to underlie the rhythm generating mechanism of pacemaker neurons within the pBc. In the present study, a substantial persistent sodium current was documented in many neurons from the pBc and adjacent respiratory regions. This finding is not inconsistent with the postulated role in rhythm generation. However, it does suggest that other neuronal properties must act in concert with the persistent current to define a unique population of pacemaker neurons.

Strategic Workshops on Cancer Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology offers the potential for new approaches to detecting, treating, and preventing cancer. To determine the current status of the cancer nanotechnology field and the optimal path forward, the National Cancer Institutes Alliance for Nanotechnology in Cancer held three strategic workshops, covering the areas of in vitro diagnostics and prevention, therapy and post-treatment, and in vivo diagnosis and imaging. At each of these meetings, a wide range of experts from academia, industry, the nonprofit sector, and the U.S. government discussed opportunities in the field of cancer nanotechnology and barriers to its implementation.

Cancer Therapy Through Nanomedicine

Over the course of the last hundred years, great strides have been made through biomedical research to alleviate the disease burden of many of the scourges of humanity. At the turn of the 20th century, infectious diseases were largely responsible for limiting the life expectancies in the United States to fewer than 50 years.